国号

由于新罗的国号并非汉语，故在早期存在不同的汉字标记，如徐罗伐、徐耶伐、徐那伐、新罗、斯罗、薛罗等，其中仅见于中国史料的是斯卢、新卢，仅见于日本史料中是新良、志罗纪。据《三国史记》记载，「新罗」一词出现于公元307年。从史料年代来看，实际上最早出现于公元414年的《好太王碑》中。公元503年，智证王以「新者德业日新，罗者网罗四方」之意，正式确定国名的汉字标记为「新罗」。

而关于「新罗」一词的语源，学界也是众说纷纭。有观点认为是「新国」之意，有观点认为是「东方（或东土、东国）」之意，有观点认为是「首邑」、「上邑」之意，还有观点认为是「金铁之地」之意。还有学者考证，徐罗†sara、薛罗†särra是新罗的早期称谓，在古韩语中意为「东土」（「伐」为「原野」之意，徐罗伐即「东土之原」），显示新罗发祥于阏川以东。随著新罗疆域的扩大，徐罗、薛罗不适合作为国号，取而代之的是斯卢、斯罗†sira或新卢、新罗†sirra，在古韩语中意为「新土（新国）」。

新罗还有一个别称为「鸡林」，据《三国史记》记载，该称呼源于金氏始祖金阏智被发现于鸡鸣之林。后来唐朝在新罗设置鸡林州都督府，作为对新罗进行羁縻统治的机构。统一新罗时期，新罗有时会在国号前添加唐朝，如「有唐新罗国」、「大唐新罗国」等。。

历史

建国

新罗始于辰韩十二部落之斯卢。斯卢位于金城（今庆州），由六个氏族村落组成。相传有一神马在斯卢留下一瓢形大卵，有一男婴从卵中破壳而出。斯卢人将男婴奉为神，在其10岁多（公元前57年）的时候，将其推举为王，是为新罗始祖朴赫居世居西干。公元前53年正月，有一条龙在阏英井出现，在其右腋下生出了一名女婴。目睹女婴诞生的老妇人收养了她并为她命名为阏英。阏英长大后，朴赫居世居西干听说她的姿容和德行不凡，纳她为妃。阏英夫人以贤行而闻名，辅助赫居世居西干被时人奉为「二圣」。

儒理尼师今（24-57年）时期，斯卢的六个氏族村落被改编成六个行政区域，赐以李、崔、孙、郑、裴、薛六姓，并设立十七等官位。儒理尼师今传位于其女婿贤明之人昔脱解（脱解尼师今）。新罗王位开始在朴、昔两家族间继承。传说，儒理尼师今夜闻城西树林有公鸡鸣叫。次日派人前去查看，见「有金色小柜挂树枝，白鸡鸣于其下」，金柜内有一男孩。儒理尼师今收养了金柜内的男孩，给他取名金阏智，是为新罗金氏始祖。261年，沾解尼师今去世后无子，助贲尼师今的女婿金阏智后裔味邹尼师今继位。王位从此开始在朴、昔、金三大家族间继承。

中央集权的建立

奈勿尼师今（356-402年）继位后，将君主称呼由「尼师今」改为「麻立干」（意为分水岭），并开始采取措施巩固金氏家族对王权的控制。新罗王位从此由金氏家族独占。402年，奈勿尼师今去世，其子讷祇麻立干年幼，新罗人拥实圣麻立干即位。实圣怨恨奈勿将他在年幼时送到高句丽为人质，417年将奈勿之子讷祇送到高句丽为人质，并试图让高句丽人将其杀害。但高句丽人并没杀他。讷祇后回国弑王即位。君主世袭制度在新罗得到正式确立。

智证王（500-514年）即位后，新罗于503年去除了「麻立干」的君主称呼，并确立国号为「新罗」。505年，新罗开始实行州、郡、县三级行政区划。州长官军主、郡长官太守和县长官县令由国王选派。于山国亦在智证王统治期间(512年)并入新罗。514年智证王在洛东江西岸的咸安郡设置「小京」，加强对新罗南部地区的控制。

法兴王（514-540年）统治期间，新罗建立起骨品制和以其为基础的官制（十七官等制和百官公服制）。十七官等制将官吏职位分为17等级。只有具有相应骨品级别身份的人才能担任相应的官职。不同等级的官职有不同的服饰、车马、房屋等，即百官公服制。法兴王在位期间，新罗设立起国家重大政策决策机构「和白会」。523年，新罗吞并金官伽倻，版图扩展到洛东江下游地区。536年，新罗开始使用「建元」独立年号纪元。

中兴期

真兴王 （540-576年）统治期间，新罗国力得到很大提高，吞并整个洛东江流域和整个汉江流域，东北边境扩展到今咸镜南道的利原、端川一带。新罗夺下肥沃的汉江平原后，不仅在人口和物资方面得到增强，也同时控制了朝鲜半岛与唐朝经贸文化往来的门户汉江口，为新罗日后国力的兴盛提供了外部桥梁。

真兴王在位期间，新罗建立起「六停」军队，每州设有一停，由真骨将军统领。此外，新罗还发展了独具特色的花郎组织。551年，新罗与百济趁高句丽内乱联合出兵夺回475年被高句丽长寿王攻占的原百济国都所在的汉江流域。新罗得到汉江上游十郡。此后，新罗又发兵攻占百济夺回的汉江下游六郡，使其疆土扩展到整个汉江流域。原本同盟关系的百济与新罗也因此结仇。

在东北方面，新罗在真兴王统治期间疆土扩展到咸兴平原。561-568年，真兴王对该地区进行了巡视，并立有四块「巡境碑」，分别位于今庆尚南道昌宁、首尔北汉山、咸镜南道黄草岭和摩云岭。

统一三国

660年，新罗联合唐灭亡百济，668年又灭高句丽。此后，唐在高句丽故地设九都督并在平壤设安东都护府管辖朝鲜半岛，引发唐罗战争。战争断断续续持续了7年。唐最终将安东都护府从平壤迁往辽东（今辽阳）。新罗完全控制大同江至元山湾以南的地域，朝鲜半岛大部分地区形成统一国家。

新罗统一三国后，从各方面加强其中央集权统治。执行国王指令的执事部和掌管官吏选拔、任免的位和部被扩充，而原来由六部门阀贵族控制的国家权力机构和白会则被改编成没有实权的谘询机构。统一新罗还先后设立或扩充了掌管监察的司政府（659年）、掌管司法的左右理方府（667年）、掌管官吏俸禄的左司禄府（677年）、右司禄府（681年）、掌管土木的例作府（686年）等中央机关以加强其中央集权。为加强对门阀贵族的控制，统一新罗采取了迁豪，淡化京位与外位区别，通过「读书三品科」选拔官吏等措施。神文王五年（685），统一新罗「完备九州」，将全国分成九个州和五个小京，以加强对地方的管理。

在经济方面，新罗在获得了大量原高句丽和百济的土地后，进行了新的土地丈量和户籍登记，并以此为基础推行「丁田制」。神文王7年（687），开始实行根据官吏职位的高低授予地区收租权的禄邑制。由于地方贵族与中央集权的经济利益矛盾，禄邑制在仅实施两年后就被禄俸制所取代。景德王十六年（757），统一新罗又由禄俸制改回禄邑制。

文武王至景德王统治期间的约百年时间里，统一新罗出现了社会经济繁荣发展的「圣代」景象。据《三国史记》记载，统一新罗一度出现「家给人足，民间安堵，域内无虞，仓廪积于丘山」的富庶。国都庆州「长三千七十五步，广三千一十八步，三十五里，六部」。《三国遗事》卷一载：「新罗全盛之时，京中十七万八千九百三十六户，一千三百六十坊，五十万里，三十五金入宅。... ...城中无一草屋，接角连墙，歌吹满路，昼夜不绝」。庆州城在其鼎盛时期是个拥有百万人口的中世纪大都会，为当时世界第四大城市（仅次于长安、罗马和君士坦丁堡）。

衰落与灭亡

765年年幼的惠恭王即位后，「太后临朝，政条不理，盗贼蜂起」，768年又出现全国范围的真骨贵族夺权叛乱。统一新罗从此开始走向衰退。780年，惠恭王被叛军所杀，妥协派宣德王即位，封叛乱共谋者金敬信为和白会长官上大。785年宣德王去世后，金敬信击败对手金周元夺取王位，是为元圣王。822年，金周元之子金宪昌在熊川州割据成立「长安国」，年号「庆云」。多处地方贵族势力纷纷响应。但叛乱被镇压，但统一新罗内讧仍然不断。

真圣女王统治时期，「诸州郡不输贡赋，府库虚空，国用穷乏」。真圣女王派官吏到各地「督促」租税，引发全国范围的大规模农民起义。各地贵族也纷纷割据。900年，甄萱在百济故地建后百济。901年，弓裔在高句丽故地建后高句丽。朝鲜半岛出现后三国鼎立局面。918年，王建起兵反弓裔，建立高丽。935年，新罗向高丽投降。次年，高丽灭后百济。朝鲜半岛再次形成统一国家。

文化

佛教

讷祇麻立干时期，佛教经高句丽传入新罗。佛教起初在新罗并不被接受。528年，异次顿为助法兴王弘法殉教后，佛教开始在新罗得到接受。534年，新罗开始兴建首座佛寺大王兴轮寺。真兴王在位时期，新罗建立起僧官制度。549年，梁武帝遣使为大王兴轮寺送来佛舍利。553年，新罗建造护国寺也是新罗最大的佛寺皇龙寺。

7世纪中叶的统一新罗佛教形成了戒律宗、涅盘宗、法性宗、华严宗、法相宗五个教派。9世纪后期又出现了禅宗九派（九山）。统一新罗佛教因此有「五派九山」的说法。统一新罗有很多僧人赴唐学习，其中新罗王子金乔觉在九华山圆寂化身为金地藏。据《大唐西域求法高僧传》记载，有9位新罗僧人经由唐朝西行求法。其中慧超留有《往五天竺国传》。此外，新罗亦有无赴唐经历但名声远播中原的的名僧元晓。

儒学

儒家思想传入新罗的具体时间不详。从智证王以儒家《书》、《诗》之「德业日新」，「网罗四方」改国号「新罗」，可见当时儒家思想就已传入新罗。统一新罗神文王二年（682），新罗设立了专门研究儒家思想的国学，景德王六年（747）设各专业博士、助教，招收贵族子弟进行9年制的儒学教育。元圣王四年（788），新罗开设读书三品科，将教育与科举结合起来。此乃朝鲜科举制度的萌芽。此外，统一新罗亦有大量留学生赴唐学习儒学。较为著名的有强首、薛聪、金大问、崔致远等。

文学

诗歌

随著汉字的引入和乡札的发明。新罗本土诗歌乡歌得以兴起。三国时期，乡歌的创作在新罗是最活跃的。但在文献中流传下来的仅有《彗星歌》和《运泥谣》两首。统一新罗时期，乡歌得到了长足的发展。据《三国史记》记载，真圣女王曾命角干魏弘和大矩和尚修撰乡歌集《三代目》。该书虽已失传，但可见当时乡歌在朝鲜半岛已经非常盛行。现存的统一新罗乡歌有《三国遗事》保存的11首。

许多新罗汉诗被《全唐诗》收录，包括真德女王送给唐高宗的五言排律《太平颂》，新罗王子金地藏的《送童子下山》等。统一新罗文学巨匠崔致远的诗歌有《桂苑笔耕集》中的60首、《东文选》的30首和分散在《全唐诗》以及其它文献的10馀首 。现存保留下来最早的统一新罗汉文诗是8世纪上半叶新罗僧人慧超《往五天竺国传》残本中的五首。

散文

新罗时期出现了金大问、强首、薛聪、崔致远等散文家，留有《花王戒》、《往五天竺国传》、真兴王巡狩四碑碑志等散文名篇。崔致远是新罗散文大家。他在唐的16年间创作了万馀篇作品，其中大部分都是散文和应用文（诗歌只有300多首）。他的散文集《桂苑笔耕集》收录的大多数是骈体四俪六的行政公文，但他的散文内容丰富，体裁多样，具有很高的艺术成就。他所撰写的《檄黄巢书》，条理清晰，措辞犀利。据《孤云先生遗事》记载，黄巢在读到「不惟天下之人皆思显戮，抑亦地中之鬼已议阴诛」时，不觉从床上掉了下来。

史传和传奇文学

统一新罗时期史传文学和传奇文学兴盛。金大问是史传文学作家的代表，著有《高僧传》、《花郎世记》、《乐本》、《汉山记》等作品。统一新罗时期史传文学的代表作是《金庾信行录》。据《三国史记》记载，此书由金庾信玄孙新罗执事郎金长清所作，共十卷，是对金庾信一生的记录，其中有很多神异成分。

现存的统一新罗传奇文学有《新罗殊异传》中的《金现感虎》、《崔致远传》、《宝开祈祷》3篇。其中《崔致远传》采用的是唐传奇文体，文末带长诗《双女坟》。大部分的唐传奇作品文末的长诗都已失传。《崔致远传》是《长恨歌传》外，又一篇完整的唐传奇文体作品。其文末的《双女坟》是典型的长篇乐府歌行，为朝鲜文学史上的第一首长篇叙事诗。

艺术

音乐

新罗设有掌管音乐事务的专门机构「音乐署」，有卿2人，大师2人，师4人。据《三国史记》的记载，新罗有「三竹、三弦、拍板、大鼓」等乐器。其中三竹指的是新罗独特的大琴、中琴和小琴；三弦指伽倻琴、玄琴和琵琶。

绘画

现存早期新罗的绘画主要是庆州市天马冢和98号古墓出土的天马图、骑马人图和瑞鸟图等。随著佛教的兴盛，佛教绘画在统一新罗时期开始兴起。统一新罗设有专门掌管绘画的机构「彩典」，出现了率居、金忠义等画家。据说皇龙寺内的古松壁画，芬皇寺内的观音菩萨像和晋州断俗寺维摩像都是出于率居之手。《三国史记》为其立传，是朝鲜正史中唯一的一位画家。金忠义是位曾在唐朝学艺的新罗画家，曾任管理唐宫廷工艺品的少府监。唐朝画家张彦远曾评价他的画技「巧绝过人，迹皆精妙」。统一新罗还有伏麻吕、饭万吕等赴日的画家。不过统一新罗画家的作品都已失传。

陶瓷

新罗陶器是种烧成温度在1000℃以上的硬质灰陶，结构致密，强度大，近似炻器。早期新罗陶器主要采用泥条盘筑法进行成型，4世纪中叶开始使用轮制成型方法。新罗陶器不施釉，而是通过高温将胎土中的二氧化硅玻化，在陶器表面形成与釉一样的光滑效果。新罗陶器器型多为高足杯、长颈壶、器台等，大部分器皿无纹。由于厚葬的习俗，新罗出土陶器中有很多车型、舟型、人偶等异形陶器。

统一新罗陶器多施黄色和绿色釉。佛教的盛行使统一新罗的骨壶比三国时期更加华丽、精致。受唐三彩的影响，统一新罗时期出现了名为「新罗三彩」的三彩釉陶。9世纪后期，新罗开始从中国江浙地区输入青瓷、黑瓷和白瓷等瓷器，以及制瓷技术。朝鲜陶瓷从此进入瓷器时代。统一新罗是世界上最早从中国引进制瓷技术的国家。

科技

天文

新罗设有研究天文气象和制定历书的天文博士和司天博士。《三国史记》有关日蚀、彗星等天文气象的记载多达四百馀条。新罗善德女王时期用于观测天象的瞻星台是目前世界现存最早的的天文台。

医学

统一新罗于717年开设药殿，指定专门的医博士教授医学，主要科目是其从唐引入的《本草》、《甲乙》、《素问》、《针经》、《脉经》、《明堂》、《难经》等医学理论。三国时期留学印度的僧人回到统一新罗后，对统一新罗的佛教医学产生了一定的影响。从印度归来的僧人以及唐沿海新罗坊从事贸易的商人还将产于阿拉伯、东罗马帝国等地的药材引入朝鲜半岛。三国时期曾出现的救疗制度在统一新罗时期得到进一步的完善。

与此同时，从统一新罗传入中国的医方、药物也明显增多，比如高句丽的《老师方》被载入《外台秘要》，记载新罗僧人用威灵仙治愈足痹的《威灵仙传》，来华新罗僧人带来的《新罗法师方》等。其中，威灵仙的药效很快被中国医家认可并迅速推广，并被载入《本草》。据《三国史记》记载，662-929年中国使节先后约9次来朝鲜输入人参、牛黄、松子等药材。唐本草学著作中记载有人参、蓝腾根、大叶藻、昆布、白附子、土瓜、薄荷、荆芥、菊、海石榴、海红花、茄子、石发、海松子、桃、榛子、海狗脊、威灵仙、羊脂等原产于新罗的药材。

统一新罗时期的医书主要有《济众立效方》、《新罗法士方》、《新罗法士流观秘密要术方》和《新罗法师秘密方》四部。不过这四部书都已失佚，只有《新罗法士方》二首，《新罗法士流观秘密要术方》和《新罗法师秘密方》各一首保存在日本《医心方》中。据《三国遗事》记载，新罗曾进行过尸体解剖：「其骷髅周三尺三寸，身骨长九尺七寸，齿凝如一，骨节皆连锁，所谓天下无敌力士之骨。」

注释

Etymology

Until the official adoption of Hanja names for its administration, Silla was recorded using the Hundok reading of Hanja to phonetically approximate its native Korean name, including,,,,, and.

In 504, Jijeung of Silla standardized the characters into, which in Modern Korean is pronounced Silla. According to the Samguk sagi, the name of (Silla), consisting of the components sin, as in deokeopilsin and ra, as in mangrasabang is thought to be a later Confucian interpretation.

The modern Seoul is a shortened form of Seorabeol, meaning "capital city", and was continuously used throughout the Goryeo and Joseon periods even in official documents, despite the formal name having been Hanyang or Hanseong. The name of the Silla capital changed into its Late Middle Korean form Syeobeul, meaning "royal capital city," which changed to Syeoul soon after, and finally resulted in Seoul in the Modern Korean language.

The name of either Silla or its capital Seorabeol was widely used throughout Northeast Asia as the ethnonym for the people of Silla, appearing as Shiragi in Japanese and as Solgo or Solho in the language of the medieval Jurchens and their later descendants, the Manchus, respectively. Koreans are still known as Солонгос (Solongos) in Mongolian, which is according to popular folk etymology is believed to be derived from the Mongolian word for "rainbow" (солонго solongo). In a paper published in 2023 regarding the etymology of the Mongolian word Solongos "Korea, Koreans," the following seven etymological hypotheses regarding the origin of Solongos have been enumerated: (1) It comes from the Mongolian word solongo meaning "rainbow"; (2) It comes from the Mongolian word solongo meaning "weasel"; (3) It comes from the Mongolian/Manchurian ethnonym Solon; (4) It comes from the name of the ancient kingdom of Silla; (5) It comes from Jurchen *Solgo(r) ~ Solho which in turn stems from Old Korean 수릿골 suɾiskol > 솔골 solkol "Goguryeo"; (later) Korea, Korean"; (6) It comes from the Mongolian word solgoi "left, east"; (7) It comes from the name of the medieval kingdom of Goryeo (via *Hoɾyo > *Solo(n)-). The authors of this paper have ended up supporting the sixth hypothesis, i.e. that Mongolian Solongos "Korea, Koreans" ultimately should be cognate with Mongolian soluγai > solγoi "left, wrong side of the body, left-handed, enemy to the east (from the perspective of the Mongols)"."

Silla was also referred to as Gyerim, literally "rooster forest", a name that has its origins in the forest near the Silla capital. Legend has it that the state's founder was born in the same forest, hatched from the egg of a cockatrice.

History

Founding

During the Proto–Three Kingdoms period, central and southern Korea consisted of three confederacies called the Samhan. Silla began as "Saro-guk", a statelet within the 12-member confederacy known as Jinhan. Saro-guk consisted of six clans later known as the Six Clans of Jinhan from Gojoseon.

According to Korean records, Silla was founded by Bak Hyeokgeose of Silla in 57 BCE, around present-day Gyeongju. Hyeokgeose is said to have been hatched from an egg laid from a white horse, and when he turned 13, six clans submitted to him as king and established the kingdom of "Saro (pronounced si.raʔ at the time)" which later became the kingdom of Silla.

In various inscriptions on archaeological founding such as personal gravestones and monuments, it is recorded that Silla royals considered themselves having Xiongnu ancestry through the Xiongnu prince Kim Il-je, also known as Jin Midi in Chinese sources. According to several historians, it is possible that this unknown tribe was originally of Koreanic origin in the Korean peninsula and joined the Xiongnu confederation. Later the tribe's ruling family returned to Korea from Liaodong peninsula where they thrive, and after coming back to the peninsula they got married into the royal family of Silla. There are also some Korean researchers that point out that the grave goods of Silla and of the eastern Xiongnu are alike, and some researchers insist that the Silla king is descended from Xiongnu. It's more likely that the ruling families were just native Koreanic speakers as the linguistic situation at that time suggests.

Nihon Shoki and Kojiki also mentions Silla as the place where the Japanese god, Susanoo first descended from the heavens after his banishment in a place called "Soshimori". Up until the liberation of Korea in 1945, Meiji era Japanese historians claimed that Susanoo had ruled over Silla and that the Koreans were the descendants of him, thus finding justification and legitimizing the Japanese occupation of Korea through the use of Nissen dōsoron. According to the Shinsen Shōjiroku, Inahi no Mikoto the brother of the mythological Emperor Jimmu was the ancestor to the kings of Silla. Another source found in Samguk sagi claims that a Japanese man named, Hogong helped build the kingdom of Silla.

Early period

In its early days, Silla started off as a city-state by the name of Saro, initially founded by Yemaek refugees from Gojoseon. It has also accepted dispersed people fleeing from the Lelang Commandery after Goguryeo's invasion, while later on incorporating native Jin people in the vicinity and Ye people to the North.

Talhae of Silla (57 CE–80 CE) was the son-in-law of Namhae of Silla (4 CE–24 CE). According to the Samguk sagi, Seoktalhae was the prince of Yongseongguk (龙成国) or Dapana (多婆那国), located 1,000-ri (里), northeast of Japan (?). Following the will of Namhae of Silla, he became the fourth king of Silla. One day, he found a low peak next to Mt. Toham (吐含山) and packed it with his own house, and he buried charcoal next to the house of a Japonic official named Hogong (瓠公), who lived there, and deceived him that his ancestors were blacksmiths, but the Hogong family took their home. Hogong was tricked into handing over his house and property to the Seoktalhae. During this period, Kim Al-chi, the ancestor of Gyeongju Kim, was adopted by Talhae of Silla.

The territory outside the capital was greatly conquered during the period of Pasa of Silla (80–112). As soon as he ascended the throne, he ordered officials to encourage agriculture, silkworm farming and train soldiers. There was a territorial dispute between the Eumjipbeol and Siljikgok, and the two countries first asked Pasa of Silla to mediate, Pasa of Silla was handed over to King Suro of Gimhae, who was the local leader at the time. King Suro instead resolved the territorial issue and ruled in favor of Eumjipbeol. However, King Suro sent an assassin to kill the head of the six Silla divisions, who hid in the Eumjipbeol while the assassin was escaping, and King Tachugan (陀邹干) protected the assassin. In response, Pasa of Silla invaded Eumjipbeol in 102 and Tachugan surrendered, and the Siljikgok and Apdok, which were frightened by Silla, also surrendered. Six years later, it entered the inland area and attacked and merged Dabulguk, Bijigukuk, and Chopalguk.

During the Naehae of Silla period (196–230), the Eight Port Kingdoms War (浦上八国 乱) broke out to determine hegemony in the southern part of the peninsula. In 209, when the "eight upper countries (of the estuary)" (浦上八国) in the Nakdong River basin attacked the Silla-friendly Aragaya, the prince of Aragaya asked Silla for a rescue army, and the king ordered Crown Prince Seok Uro to gather his troops and attack the eight kingdoms. Crown Prince SeokUro saved Aragaya and rescued 6,000 of the pro-Silla Gaya people who had been captured and returned to their homeland. Three years later, three among the eight countries (浦上八国), Golpo-guk, Chilpo-guk, and Gosapo-guk, will launch counterattacks against Silla. A battle took place in Yeomhae, the southeastern part of the capital, and the war ended when the Silla king came out to fight against it, and the soldiers of the three kingdoms were defeated.

By the 2nd century, Silla existed as its own distinct political entity in the southeastern area of the Korean peninsula. It expanded its influence over the neighboring Jinhan chiefdoms, but throughout the 3rd century was probably no more than the strongest constituent in the Jinhan confederacy.

To the west, Baekje had centralized into a kingdom by about 250 CE, overtaking the Mahan confederacy. To the southwest, Byeonhan was being replaced by the Gaya confederacy. In northern Korea, Goguryeo, founded around 50 CE, destroyed the last Chinese commandery in 313 CE and had grown into the largest regional power.

Emergence of a centralized monarchy

Naemul of Silla (356–402) of the Kim clan established a hereditary monarchy and took the royal title of Maripgan (麻立干; 마립간). However, in the Samguk sagi, Naemul of Silla still appears as a title of Isageum (泥师今; 이사금). He is considered by many historians as the starting point of the Gyeongju Kim period, which lasted more than 550 years. However, even when the Kim monopolized the throne for more than 500 years, the veneration of the founder Bak Hyeokgeose continued.

In 377, Silla sent emissaries to China and established relations with Goguryeo. Facing pressure from Baekje in the west and Japan in the south, in the later part of the 4th century, Silla allied with Goguryeo. However, after King Gwanggaeto's unification campaign, Silla lost its status as a sovereign country becoming a vassal of Goguryeo. When Goguryeo began to expand its territory southward, moving its capital to Pyongyang in 427, Nulji of Silla was forced to ally with Baekje.

By the time of Beopheung of Silla (514–540), Silla was a full-fledged kingdom, with Buddhism as state religion, and its own Korean era name. Silla absorbed the Gaya confederacy during the Gaya–Silla Wars, annexing Geumgwan Gaya in 532 and conquering Daegaya in 562, thereby expanding its borders to the Nakdong River basin.

Jinheung of Silla (540–576) established a strong military force. Silla helped Baekje drive Goguryeo out of the Han River (Seoul) area, and then wrested control of the entire central western Korea region from Baekje in 553, breaching the 120-year Baekje-Silla alliance. Also, King Jinheung established the Hwarang.

The early period ended with the death of Jindeok of Silla and the demise of the "hallowed bone" (; seonggol) rank system.

Etymology of title

The royal title Maripgan is analyzed into two elements in many popular explanations, with the first element alleged to be from the Korean root

• mari (마리) from Middle Korean 마리〮 màlí, "head"/ countable of "head / per head" or "hair"

• mang-rip or mang-nip (网笠), "a traditional-style hat made of horsehair"

• mo-rip (毛笠), "a kind of hat worn by servants in the old days"

• mi-rip or mi-reup, meaning "a knack, a trick, the hang of something"

• madi (맏이) or maji (맏히), meaning "the firstborn, the eldest (child of a family); an elder, a senior, a person whose age is greater than someone else's age"

• mat-jip (맛집), meaning "the house in which the head of a household lives, the main house on an estate"

• mŏrŏ or maru (마루), meaning "ridge, peak, crest (of a roof, a mountain, a wave, etc.); zenith, climax, prime; the first, the standard"

• maru (마루) or mallu, meaning "floor"

or from a word related to Middle Korean marh meaning "stake, post, pile, picket, peg, pin (of a tent)".

The second element, gan (Hangul: 간), is a likely cognate to han (Hangul: 한) and the word for "big, great" keun, first attested as Late Old Korean 黑根 *hùkú-n. Both carry the meaning of "great, leader", which was previously used by the princes of southern Korea, and is sometimes also speculated to have an external relationship with the Mongolic/Turkic title of Khan.

Unified Silla

In the 7th century, Silla allied itself with the Chinese Tang dynasty. In 660, under Muyeol of Silla (654–661), the Silla–Tang alliance subjugated Baekje after the Baekje–Tang War. In 668, under King Munmu of Silla (King Muyeol's successor) and General Kim Yu-sin, the Silla–Tang alliance conquered Goguryeo to its north after the Goguryeo–Tang War. Silla then fought against the Tang dynasty for nearly a decade to expel Chinese forces on the peninsula intent on creating Tang colonies there to finally establish a unified kingdom as far north as modern Pyongyang. The northern region of the defunct Goguryeo state later reemerged as Balhae.

Silla's middle period is characterized by the rising power of the monarchy at the expense of the jingol nobility. This was made possible by the new wealth and prestige garnered as a result of Silla's unification of the peninsula, as well as the monarchy's successful suppression of several armed aristocratic revolts following early upon unification, which afforded the king the opportunity of purging the most powerful families and rivals to central authority. Further, for a brief period of about a century from the late 7th to late 8th centuries the monarchy made an attempt to divest aristocratic officialdom of their landed base by instituting a system of salary payments, or office land (jikjeon, 직전, 职田), in lieu of the former system whereby aristocratic officials were given grants of land to exploit as salary (the so–called tax villages, or nog-eup, 녹읍, 禄邑).

By the late 8th century, however, these royal initiatives had failed to check the power of the entrenched aristocracy. The mid to late 8th century saw renewed revolts led by branches of the Kim clan which effectively limited royal authority. Most prominent of these was a revolt led by Kim Daegong that persisted for three years. One key evidence of the erosion of kingly authority was the rescinding of the office land system and the re-institution of the former tax village system as salary land for aristocratic officialdom in 757.

In Jinjin and Silla, the king was referred to as Gan, and during the Unified Silla Period, the title "Gan" was also used as Chungji Jagan and Agan.

The middle period of Silla came to an end with the assassination of Hyegong of Silla in 780, terminating the kingly line of succession of Muyeol of Silla, the architect of Silla's unification of the peninsula. Hyegong's demise was a bloody one, the culmination of an extended civil war involving most of the kingdom's high–ranking noble families. With Hyegong's death, during the remaining years of Silla, the king was reduced to little more than a figurehead as powerful aristocratic families became increasingly independent of central control.

Thereafter the Silla kingship was fixed in the house of Wonseong of Silla (785–798), though the office itself was continually contested among various branches of the Kim lineage.

Nevertheless, the middle period of Silla witnessed the state at its zenith, the brief consolidation of royal power, and the attempt to institute a Chinese style bureaucratic system.

Decline and fall

The final century and a half of the Silla state was one of nearly constant upheaval and civil war as the king was reduced to little more than a figurehead and powerful aristocratic families rose to actual dominance outside the capital and royal court.

The tail end of this period, called the Later Three Kingdoms period, briefly saw the emergence of the kingdoms of Later Baekje and Taebong, which were composed of rebels originating from their respective regions' historical backgrounds. Silla was defeated first by Later Baekje and the era ended with Silla's submission to Goryeo.

Restoration Movements

Despite its destruction and annexation by Goryeo, for nearly three centuries loyalty to the old Silla kingdom and Silla traditions remained latent in the Kyŏngju area. Silla restoration revolts include those led by Yi Ui-min in 1186 and by Kim Sa-mi in 1193 as well as later revolts in 1202.

Society and politics

From at least the 6th century, when Silla acquired a detailed system of law and governance, social status and official advancement were dictated by the bone rank system. This rigid lineage-based system also dictated clothing, house size, and the permitted range of marriage.

Since its emergence as a centralized polity Silla society had been characterized by its strict aristocratic makeup. Silla had two royal classes: "sacred bone" (seonggol, 성골, 圣骨) and "true bone" (jingol, 진골, 眞骨). Up until the reign of King Muyeol this aristocracy had been divided into "sacred bone" and "true bone" aristocrats, with the former differentiated by their eligibility to attain the kingship. This duality had ended when Queen Jindeok, the last ruler from the "sacred bone" class, died in 654. The numbers of "sacred bone" aristocrats had been decreasing for generations, as the title was only conferred to those whose parents were both "sacred bones", whereas children of a "sacred" and a "true bone" parent were considered as "true bones". There were also many ways for a "sacred bone" to be demoted to a "true bone", thus making the entire system even more likely to collapse eventually.

The king (or queen) theoretically was an absolute monarch, but royal powers were somewhat constrained by a strong aristocracy. Notably, Silla was unique in having female monarchs. There were, for example, three reigning Sillan female "kings" (yeouang, 여왕), distinct from queens who were merely the consorts of male rulers. Descent also continued to be traced through both paternal and maternal lines throughout the Sillan era, suggesting women enjoyed a relatively high status compared to other contemporary East Asian states.

The "Hwabaek" (화백,和白) served as royal council with decision-making authorities on some vital issues like succession to the throne or declarations of war. The Hwabaek was headed by a person (Sangdaedeung) chosen from the "sacred bone" rank. One of the key decisions of this royal council was the adoption of Buddhism as state religion.

Following unification Silla began to rely more upon Chinese models of bureaucracy to administer its greatly expanded territory. This was a marked change from pre-unification days when the Silla monarchy stressed Buddhism, and the Silla monarch's role as a "Buddha-king". Another salient factor in post-unification politics were the increasing tensions between the Korean monarchy and aristocracy.

Military

The early Silla military was built around a small number of Silla royal guards designed to protect royalty and nobility and in times of war served as the primary military force if needed. Due to the frequency of conflicts between Baekje and Goguryeo as well as Yamato Japan, Silla created six local garrisons one for each district. The royal guards eventually morphed into "sworn banner" or Sodang units. In 625 another group of Sodang was created. Garrison soldiers were responsible for local defense and also served as a police force.

A number of Silla's greatest generals and military leaders were Hwarang (equivalent to the Western knights or chevaliers). Originally a social group, due to the continuous military rivalry between the Three Kingdoms of Korea, they eventually transformed from a group of elite male aristocratic youth into soldiers and military leaders. Hwarang were key in the fall of Goguryeo (which resulted in the unification of the Korean Peninsula under Unified Silla) and the Silla–Tang Wars, which expelled Tang forces in the other two Korean kingdoms.

Silla is known to have operated crossbows called the Cheonbono that was said to have had a range of one thousand steps and a special pike unit called the Jangchang-Dang to counter enemy cavalry. In particular, Silla's crossbows were prized by Tang China due to its excellent functions and durability. Silla would later employ special crossbow units against its Korean counterparts such as Goguryeo and Baekje, as well as the Tang dynasty during the Silla–Tang War. The pike unit, called Changchangdang that would later be known as the Bigeum Legion as part of the Nine Legions and which was consisted of Silla folks, had a special purpose to counter the Göktürks cavalries operated by the Tang army during the Silla-Tang War.

In addition, Silla's central army, the Nine Legions, were consisted of Silla, Goguryeo, Baekje, and Mohe people. These nine legions aimed at defending the capital became complete in formation and compilation after Silla unified the Three Kingdoms. Each Legions were known for their representative colors marked on their collars and were constituted by different groups. The Golden, Red, and Dark Blue Legion employed Goguryeoans while the Blue and White Legion accepted Baekje folks into their ranks. The Bigeum (also Red in color), Green, and Purple Legion were formed by Sillan people whilst the Black Legion took dispersed Mohe refugees into their fold that came along with Goguryeo refugees after the Fall of Goguryeo.

Silla is also known for its maritime prowess shown by the navy backed with master shipbuilding and seamanship. The boats employed were usually called Sillaseon, which had an international reputation for its solid durability and effective capabilities that were said to 'enable men surf across the biggest of waves' amongst the Chinese and Japanese according to the Shoku Nihon Koki. During the Silla-Tang War, the Silla navy under the command of general Sideuk defeated the Tang Navy 22 times out of 23 engagements in Gibeolpo, today's Seocheon County. Jang Bogo, a prominent maritime figure of Silla, was also famous for his navy based on the Cheonghaejin Garrison.

Culture

A significant number of Silla tombs can still be found in Gyeongju, the capital of Silla. Silla tombs consist of a stone chamber surrounded by a soil mound. The historic area around Gyeongju was added to the UNESCO World Heritage list in 2000. Much of it is also protected as part of Gyeongju National Park. Additionally, two villages near Gyeongju named Hahoe and Yangdong Folk Village were submitted for UNESCO heritages in 2008 or later by related cities and the South Korean government. Since the tombs were harder to break into than those of Baekje, a larger number of objects has been preserved. Notable amongst these are Silla's elaborate gold crowns and jewelry.

The massive Bronze Bell of King Seongdeok the Great of Silla is known to produce a distinctive sound. Cheomseongdae near Gyeongju is the oldest extant astronomical observatory in East Asia but some disagree on its exact functions. It was built during the reign of Queen Seondeok (632–647).

It was from Silla that Korea's oldest extant genre of poems, known as hyangga, developed and were recorded. Additionally, among the three kingdoms, Silla has the best preserved ancient Korean literature written in Classical Chinese, which includes the hanshi poetry of Ch'oe Ch'i-wŏn, as well as the travelogue of Buddhist monk Hyecho.

Muslim traders brought the name "Silla" to the world outside the traditional East Asian sphere through the Silk Road. Geographers of the Arab and Persian world, including ibn Khurdadhbih, al-Masudi, Dimashiki, Al-Nuwayri, and al-Maqrizi, left records about Silla.

The current descendants to the Silla dynasty fall under the Park name. Family records since the last ruler have been provided, but these records have yet to be fully verified.

Native ethnic religion/Shamanism/Animism

The ancient indigenous native religion of Korea presented one of the most important aspects in early Korean society and involved the very lives of its people as well of its culture. One of the key features is the belief in the spirits of nature, that inhabit all the things in existence. Its presence is seen in Korean culture itself and could be considered inseparable from it, from cultural and national festivals such as Seollal and Chuseok, to many practices within Korean Buddhism that originate from it.

The ethnic religion of Silla was a key element within the Silla state and constituted the State religion around which many of the national rites, festivals and ceremonies revolved around. The ruler of Silla was simultaneously its religious head and one of the most revered figures in the nation, having a near deity/saint like status due to their descendance from the spirits of the skies. The title of the second ruler of Silla, Nurye "Yuri" Isageum, called Chachaung was one of the high shamans of the state for example.

The ruler also performed the national ceremonies to support the nation in upcoming times together with his sister serving as a high ranking shamaness figure only second to the ruler himself. Silla's unique exceptionalist nationalism focused on the struggle for survival against the much more powerful neighbours of Goguryeo and Baekje.

The Hwarang order had its origin in Silla's native religion as well, where the youth would strive to fight for their country and monarch. They would embark on nationalistic pilgrimages to seek out the spirits, who would grant them powers to vanquish their enemies. The Hwarang segi is one of the manuscripts that give insight into their lives and practices.

Springs and Mountains are some of the sources, where the spirits of life originate from, who sometimes take on the form of animals and girls.

When Silla adopted Buddhism, the previous ethnic religion was syncretized with the new faith and largely became synonymous to it. Buddhist deities are often treated the same way deities from the native religion are. Buddhism subsequently also found its way into native folk beliefs.

Shamanism remained important well into the Goryeo period, with a nativist uprising nominally led by a Buddhist court monk named Myocheong occurring in the 12th century.

The national festivals of Goryeo, Palgwanhoe and Yeondeunghoe, while they were Buddhist festivals were originally native shamanistic ones.

During Joseon shamans were still reached out to by the common folk, who for example often went to them to decide the names of their kids.

Buddhism

Centuries after Buddhism emerged in India, the strand called Mahayana Buddhism spread out of Central Asia, modern-day Afghanistan, and arrived in Silla the very last out of Goguryeo and Baekje due to its geographic isolation. In Korea, it was adopted as the state religion of 3 constituent polities of the Three Kingdoms Period, first by Goguryeo in 372 CE, by Silla in 528 CE, and by Baekje in 552 CE. Buddhism was introduced much more reluctantly compared to the two others to Silla in 528. Silla had been exposed to the religion for over a century during which the faith had certainly made inroads into the native populace and mixed with the native Shamanist and Animist folk religion to form the Korean specific form of Buddhism. The Buddhist monk Ado introduced Silla to Buddhism when he arrived to proselytize in the mid 5th century. The Samguk yusa and Samguk sagi following 3 monks among the first to bring Buddhist teaching, or Dharma, to Korea: Malananta (late 4th century) – an Indian Buddhist monk who brought Buddhism to King Baekje of Baekje in the southern Korean peninsula in 384, Sundo – a Chinese Buddhist monk who brought Buddhism to Goguryeo in northern Korea in 372, and Ado – a Buddhist monk who brought Buddhism to Silla in central Korea. However, according to legend, the Silla monarchy was convinced to adopt the faith only by the martyrdom of the Silla general Ichadon, who was executed for his Buddhist faith by the Silla monarch in 527 only to have his blood flow the color of milk.

The importance of Buddhism in Silla society of the late early period is difficult to exaggerate. From King Beopheung and for the following six reigns Silla kings adopted Buddhist names and came to portray themselves as Buddhist–kings.

By the time of the 7th century, Buddhism in Korea reached its golden age with the advent of prominent, elite scholar-monks such as Wonhyo, Uisang, and Jajang that influenced East Asian philosophy and played pivotal roles in laying key ideas within East Asian Buddhism like Essence-Function. With the support of the government, massive temples like the Temple of the Golden Dragon, Temple of the Buddhist Realms and hermitages like Seokguram were built across the nation. Buddhist ideals and practices permeated the people's daily lives regardless of class and the court, as well as the government, actively promoted Buddhism as a symbol of patriotism in times of invasions. The main assessment is that relics and temple ruins related to Silla found today were ahead of their time and surpassed those of Goryeo and Joseon in terms of size and extravagancy. Many Sillan monks who were part of the elite caste chose to expand their experience and knowledge by studying abroad in Tang China or travelling far west to India. Hyecho, known for his travelogue "An Account of Travel to the Five Indian Kingdoms", was one of the many Korean monks that ventured to territories west to China yet to be visited by Koreans at that time.

Silla's strong Buddhist nature is also reflected by the thousands of remnant Buddhist stone figures and carvings, mostly importantly on Namsan. The international influence of the Tang dynasty on these figures and carvings can be witnessed in the hallmarks of a round full form, a stern expression of the face, and drapery that clings to the body, but stylistic elements of native Korean culture can still be identified.

Foreign relations

Korea's and Iran's long-running relationship started with cultural exchanges dating back to the Three Kingdoms of Korea era, more than 1600 years ago by the way of the Silk Road. A dark blue glass was found in the Cheonmachong Tomb, one of Silla's royal tombs unearthed in Gyeongju. An exotic golden sword was found in Gyerim-ro, a street also located in Gyeongju. These are all relics that are presumed to be sent to Silla from ancient Iran or Persia through the Silk Road. Other items uncovered during the excavation include a silver bowl engraved with an image of the Persian goddess Anahita; a golden dagger from Persia; clay busts; and figurines portraying Middle Eastern merchants.

It was only during the Goryeo dynasty during Hyeonjeong's reign when trade with Persia was officially recorded in Korean history. But in academic circles, it is presumed that both countries had active cultural exchanges during the 7th century Silla era which means the relationship between Korea and Iran began more than 1,500 years ago. "In a history book written by the Persian scholar Khurdadbid, it states that Silla is located at the eastern end of China and reads 'In this beautiful country Silla, there is much gold, majestic cities and hardworking people. Their culture is comparable with Persia'. Samguk Sagi— the official chronicle of the Three Kingdoms era, compiled in 1145—contains further descriptions of commercial items sold by Middle Eastern merchants and widely used in Silla society. The influence of Iranian culture was profoundly felt in other ways as well, most notably in the fields of music, visual arts, and literature. The popularity of Iranian designs in Korea can be seen in the widespread use of pearl-studded roundels and symmetrical, zoomorphic patterns.

An ancient Persian epic poem, the Kushnameh, contains detailed descriptions of Silla. Former South Korean president Park Geun-hye said during a festival celebrating Iran and Korea's 1,500 years of shared cultural ties, "The Kushnameh, that tells of a Persian prince who went to Silla in the seventh century and got married with a Korean princess, thus forming a royal marriage."

Silla also traded indirectly with the Roman Empire through the Silk Road. Many Roman relics were excavated from the royal tombs of Silla, and it is presumed that Roman glass was a particularly popular luxury product among the high-ranking class. The Silla tombs where Roman glass has been proven to have been excavated include Geumnyeong Tomb, Cheonma Tomb, Hwangnamdae Tomb, and Nambun Tomb No. 98.

Silla was also a place of interest by the Japanese as the Nihon Shoki and the Kojiki both claim that the Japanese god, Susanoo (brother of Amaterasu) first emerged from the kingdom of Silla after being banished from the heavens, but soon left the peninsula for the Japanese archipelago after being dissatisfied with the land. He was also used as a means of spreading propaganda through Nissen dōsoron that Susanoo once reigned over Silla and that the modern Koreans are his descendants (in turn the Japanese), ultimately using him to justify the Japanese occupation of Korea.

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