生平

年少名盛

父亲凌操轻侠有胆气，孙策初时兴兵，每次凌操从征，经常作先锋首当其冲。守永平任永平长，平治山越，奸猾之徒也收敛，后迁升为破贼校尉。后来到孙权统军，随征江夏。凌操先登进入夏口，斩杀黄祖的先锋。轻舟独进，中箭矢而死。吴书记载甘宁擅射，射杀了凌操。凌统时年十五岁，左右的人多数都称赞他，孙权以凌操死于国事，拜凌统为别部司马，行破贼都尉，代其父统领父亲生前的兵士。

英烈壮节

及后随军讨伐山越，孙权破保屯后先回朝，留下万人在麻屯，凌统与督军张异等留下围城破敌，并在限期内把敌军攻下。先前，凌统与陈勤同场饮酒，陈勤性格刚勇意气用事，酒祭祀期间，陈勤欺压坐著的人，举罚酒不按规矩。凌统恨其态度轻佻和傲慢无礼，当面指责陈勤但没有效果。陈勤怒骂凌统和其父凌操，凌统流涕不回答，从原位离开。陈勤趁著自己喝了酒凶暴悖逆，又在路上继续辱骂凌统。凌统终于忍无可忍，拿起刀来砍陈勤，数日后死亡。在攻麻屯当天，凌统说：「我不死没法谢罪。」于是率军激励士卒，用身挡著矢石，他所攻打的一面，立即就瓦坏，众将乘著攻势进击，遂即大破敌军。凌统军还，绑著自己到军正那里。孙权认为他的节气果毅，使他以功谢罪。

旋略勇进

208年孙权再次征讨江夏，凌统为前锋，凌统与所得到的数十名英勇善战的兵士共乘一船，时常离开大军数十里。驶到右江，斩杀黄祖将领张硕，掳获其船只、士兵。返回到孙权大军，并引领自军兼程赶路，水路两路齐进。当时孙权军将领吕蒙打败黄祖水军，而凌统先攻下城池，于是大获全胜。同年，赤壁之战大败曹军，孙权任凌统为承烈都尉，与周瑜等人破曹操于乌林，再攻曹仁，迁升为校尉。虽然在军旅，但凌统亲贤接士，轻财重义，有国士之风。又跟随吕蒙破皖城，后拜为荡寇中郎将，领沛相。

215年，随吕蒙夺取刘备的长沙、零陵、桂阳三郡，夺取三郡后回师，从益阳直往合肥，时为右部督。

浴血鏖战

同年，当时孙权撤军，前军已赴合肥，魏将张辽等众已经静悄悄来到津北。孙权使人追前头的大军返回，但前军已经走得特别远，形势已经十分紧迫。凌统率身边的三百人陷敌解围，扶护孙权走出重围。敌方已经把桥破坏，桥身只有两板，孙权策马奔走，凌统回归战场作战，左右亲兵几乎全数已死，身体亦伤创多数，他杀了数十人，揣测孙权已经成功逃脱才离开。桥段没有路可行，只能披甲潜遁在水中而行，前边是江河，后面追兵甚急，唯有在铠甲还没有来得及卸下的情况下跳水逃生。孙权见凌统回来，非常惊喜，但凌统却悲痛自己左右亲兵人马都已为国殉死了，孙权用自己衣袖拭擦凌统的眼泪，并说道：「公绩，死去的人已经死了，你还安在，有何忧虑呢？」凌统身体严重受创，孙权于是把凌统留于船上，换其衣物。凌统身上的创伤全赖卓氏良药，所以故不得死去。此役后拜为偏将军，加倍给他兵士。

时常有人推举与凌统同郡的盛暹给孙权，认为此人比凌统更有梗概大节，孙权说：「如今暂时只有凌统就足够。」入夜后召见盛暹，当时凌统已经在床上，听到盛暹后，穿衣出门，捉著盛暹的手入自己卧室中，凌统爱惜人才不会祸害他人。

离别痛思

凌统认为山中之人大多壮悍，可以用威信、恩惠劝诱他们投降，孙权便命他东进，并命各城凡凌统要求，皆先给予后报告，募得精兵万馀人。途中经过祖县，并进入乡寺，与乡亲旧友故恭敬尽礼，恩意极隆。此事后病逝，时年二十九岁。孙权知道后，立刻从床坐起来，哀痛不能制止，数日茶饭不思，说话时便会流涕，并命张承作了一编铭诔。

轶事与评论

凌统敬爱士人，士人也很喜爱他。而且虽在军中，仍亲自迎接、礼贤下士，轻财重义，誉为有国士之风。甚至曾为接见数有名气的盛暹，虽然当时正在就寝，但仍摄衣出门迎接，执其手一起入内。

凌统公私分明，不因私仇忘公。南郡包围战时，周瑜麾下的将领甘宁袭取了夷陵，然而曹仁亦分军往攻甘宁，甘宁军被困甚急，乃遣使去请救兵。吴军收到消息后，诸将均认为现在兵少，不足以分援甘宁，吕蒙指甘宁是军队的大将，不能不救，向周瑜、程普献计说：「留下公绩抵抗曹仁，蒙则随君同行，为甘宁解围救急，此行亦不会迁延太久，蒙保公绩必能守住主军十日的。」于此期间，凌统克尽己任，多次挫败曹仁侵扰，致使甘宁获救。

逝世年龄

后人对《三国志》的注疏（例如：卢弼的《三国志集解》或梁章钜的《三国志旁证》，两本注释的记载是二十九岁逝世，《建康实录》也记载其卒于建安二十二年；而《三国志》记载是四十九岁逝世）有疑惑，凌统的逝世年龄是「四十九」还是「二十九」。据《骆统传》的描述，骆统在凌统死后接管了他的兵权，接著就在222年和陆逊一同攻破了宜都的蜀军，如果是四十九岁逝世，逝世时间是237年，骆统就不可能在凌统逝世后222年之前接管他的兵权，与《凌统传》有矛盾之处。再加上凌统在215年第二次合肥之战后就没有其它事迹，以及他逝世时儿子尚年幼等因素，逝世时间和年龄是一个疑问，但二十九岁逝世比较合理。

家庭

父

• 凌操，孙策时期的将领，立有战功，在征黄祖时战死（被甘宁所杀）。

后代

• 长子凌烈、次子凌封，在凌统死时只有数岁，被孙权收养。凌烈后封为亭侯，但犯罪被免官，凌封袭兄爵位、士兵。

• 八世孙凌嵩，晋谘议叅军、广陵郡太守

评价

• 陈寿在《三国志》评曰：「（凌统）有国士之风。」「凡此诸将，皆江表之虎臣，孙氏之所厚待也。以潘璋之不修，权能忘过记功，其保据东南，宜哉！陈表将家支庶，而与胄子名人比翼齐衡，拔萃出类，不亦美乎！」

• 陆机：「甘宁、凌统、程普、贺齐、朱桓、朱然之徒奋其威，韩当、潘璋、黄盖、蒋钦、周泰之属宣其力；风雅则诸葛瑾、张承、步骘以声名光国。」

• 慕容廆：「不知今之江表为贤俊匿智，藏其勇略邪？将吕蒙、凌统高踪旷世哉？」

• 萧常：「（黄）盖将略吏能，皆有可称；（蒋）钦折节好学，以公灭私，（徐）盛愤惋于邢贞，统降意于盛暹，（丁）奉破强敌、夷钜奸，舒徐不迫，皆江东之翘楚。」

• 章如愚：「如程普、黄盖、甘宁、徐盛、潘璋、朱然、朱桓、贺齐、凌统、全琮、吕范，皆智足以御众，勇足以却敌，未有不为守令之职者。」

• 袁韶：「蜮视曹瞒，霆扫锋猬。翼蔽仲谋，脱危虎尾。忠不顾身，有霣无二。岂曰兵家，为古国士。」

• 郝经：「程普诸将皆江表虎臣，鏖兵卫主，攻坚轧敌，兴王定霸，孙氏兄弟卒立国建号，诸将之力也。若黄盖之水战而用火攻，能用奇者也；蒋钦之不挟私怨而举徐盛；凌统之亲贤下士轻财重义；陈表倾家养士妻子露立，并有良将之规。甘宁之奢侈、潘璋之不法，权皆容之，许宁报苏飞之恩，不使统复父，操之雠驭将之术也。丁奉恃功而骄，不容于虐主，宜哉！」「吴将剽轻，殆多谲计。莫肯下人，卒自称帝。摩创抚孤，动辄流涕。驾驭有术，驱策有方。果保江东，不负桓王。」

• 锺敬伯：「甘宁、凌统不共戴天之仇，一朝改为一刎颈之友，固丈夫事也。」

• 李贽：「观甘宁、凌统不共戴天，一朝改为刎颈之友，乃知世上无不解之仇，只是人不肯先为甘宁耳．吾劝世人勇为甘宁可也。」

• 《三国志校误》的作者陈景云：「（凌）统自摄领父兵屡立战功为时名将。」

艺术形象

动漫游戏

• 真三国无双系列 / 无双OROCHI系列（光荣公司开发，松野太纪配音）

• 三国演义

• 《苍天航路》（王欣太）

• 《火凤燎原》（陈某）:设定祖父凌宗和父亲凌操为孙家军成员，同时为了主子而死

影视

• 在央视94年版电视剧《三国演义》中，凌统的饰演者为王刚（与《孝庄秘史》中袁崇焕的饰演者为同一人，非饰演和珅出名的王刚）和韩增祥，日语版声优为高木涉。

• 2010年中国电视剧《三国》凌统的饰演者为丁健

Early life

Ling Tong was from Yuhang County (馀杭县), Wu Commandery, which is present-day Yuhang District, Hangzhou, Zhejiang. His father, Ling Cao, was a military officer serving under the warlord Sun Ce. Ling Cao held the rank of Colonel Who Defeats Bandits (破贼校尉) and continued serving Sun Quan after Sun Ce's death in the year 200. In 204, Sun Quan attacked Huang Zu, the Administrator of Jiangxia Commandery (江夏郡; around present-day Xinzhou District, Wuhan, Hubei). During the ensuing Battle of Xiakou, Ling Cao sailed alone a distance ahead on a small boat to infiltrate the enemy formation. Huang Zu abandoned his position and fled. Ling Cao was killed in the midst of battle by a stray arrow fired by Huang Zu's subordinate, Gan Ning.

Ling Tong was 15 when his father died. Sun Quan appointed Ling Tong as a Major of Separate Command (别部司马) in consideration of the fact that Ling Cao died in service of the Sun family. As many spoke well of Ling Tong's ability, the teenage Ling Tong was allowed to inherit his father's post, as acting Colonel Who Defeats Bandits, and assume command of the troops which used to be led by his father.

Ling Tong participated in a campaign against bandits in the hilly regions of Wu. Sun Quan's main force captured a bandit stronghold and left behind 10,000 men under the command of Ling Tong and Zhang Yi (张异) to lay siege to another stronghold. The day before the battle, Ling Tong and Chen Qin (陈勤) attended a banquet together. Chen Qin was in charge of ceremonial duties during the banquet, but he abused his powers and went against the rules. Ling Tong was upset by Chen Qin's insolence so he confronted him. In anger, Chen Qin hurled abuse at Ling Tong and even insulted Ling Tong's deceased father. Ling Tong was in tears but he refrained himself and did not respond to the acrimony.

After the banquet, Chen Qin, who was drunk, insulted Ling Tong again on the road. Unable to tolerate further swearword, Ling Tong injured Chen Qin with his sword. Chen Qin died a few days later. The next day, before the battle, Ling Tong exclaimed: "Only through death can my transgression be cleansed!" He charged ahead of his troops during the battle in the face of enemy arrows and boulders. The side of the garrison which Ling Tong's army attacked fell immediately. The other commanders were roused by his victory and together they inflicted a crushing defeat on the enemy. After returning from the battle, Ling Tong bound himself and surrendered to the disciplinary officer. Sun Quan was impressed with Ling Tong's strong determination and pardoned him for insubordination in consideration of his contributions.

Battle of Jiangxia

In 208, Sun Quan attacked Huang Zu at Jiangxia Commandery (江夏郡; around present-day Xinzhou District, Wuhan, Hubei) again. Ling Tong was assigned as the leader of the vanguard force. He sailed in his boat far ahead of the main army with only tens of his closest men with him, and emerged victorious in the first engagement by slaying Huang Zu's subordinate, Zhang Shuo (张硕), and capturing all of Zhang Shuo's mariners with his much smaller force. He reported back to Sun Quan and led another attack on the enemy again, advancing on both land and water.

Knowing that Zhang Shuo had been slain and that the first line of defence had been broken, Huang Zu scuttled two of his largest mengchongs to block the entrance at the chokepoint of the Mian River, and sent his crossbowmen to station themselves there to fire at any approaching enemy forces. In addition, Huang Zu had strong men and archers ambushed on top of the cliff next to the river to throw down rocks and flaming debris. Sun Quan's forces suffered great casualties and were unable to advance any further. Ling Tong and Dong Xi, along with 100 "commandos", donned two layers of armour each and charged towards the enemy despite the rain of rocks from the cliff and the fusillade from the vessels. They succeeded in breaking the connections between the two vessels after tough fighting, thus allowing Sun Quan's forces to break through and enter Miankou. Furthermore, the destruction of the mengchongs actuated Sun Quan forces' fighting spirit, and they emerged victorious in the next battle, in which Lü Meng defeated Huang Zu's navy while Ling Tong conquered Jiangxia. Sun Quan appointed Ling Tong as a Commandant of Vehemence (承烈都尉).

Battle of Red Cliffs

In late 208, the northern warlord Cao Cao launched a campaign aimed at wiping out opposing forces in southern China. He successfully pressured Liu Cong, who had succeeded Liu Biao as the Governor of Jing Province, into surrendering. A few months later, Cao Cao assembled a force of 800,000 at Jiangling County, where countless warships and weapons were stored, and sent an envoy to intimidate Sun Quan to give up resistance. Sun Quan eventually hardened his decision to go to war with Cao Cao after Lu Su and Zhou Yu convinced him. He then formed an alliance with another warlord, Liu Bei, to resist Cao Cao. Ling Tong, under Zhou Yu's command, participated in the Battle of Red Cliffs, in which the combined armies of Sun Quan and Liu Bei dealt Cao Cao's massive fleet a crushing defeat at Wulin (乌林).

Battles in central Jing Province

Following the Battle of Red Cliffs, Zhou Yu led Sun Quan's forces to attack Nan Commandery (南郡; around present-day Jingzhou, Hubei), which was defended by Cao Cao's general Cao Ren. Zhou Yu sent Gan Ning to guard Yiling (夷陵; around present-day Yichang, Hubei), but Cao Ren ordered his subordinates to attack Yiling later. Gan Ning was under siege so he requested aid from Zhou Yu, who followed Lü Meng's plan to leave Ling Tong behind to defend their position while Zhou Yu and the other generals would lead reinforcements to help Gan. Ling Tong was left alone to engage the enemy in battle for about ten days under numerical disadvantage, but he managed to triumph against the odds by holding his ground firmly while his comrades were away. The battle dragged on until Cao Ren was eventually ordered to abandon Nan Commandery, resulting in the capture of the commandery by Sun Quan's forces. Ling Tong was promoted to Colonel (校尉) for his achievements in the battle

Ling Tong later moved east and followed Lü Meng and Gan Ning to attack Cao Cao's garrison at Wan County (皖县; present-day Qianshan County, Anhui). They succeeded in conquering it. He was promoted to General of the Household Who Defeats Bandits (荡寇中郎将) and was appointed as the Chancellor of Pei (沛相). In 215, Ling Tong joined Lü Meng in capturing Liu Bei's three commanderies of Changsha, Lingling and Guiyang. Later, they returned to Yiyang to counter an army led by Liu Bei's general Guan Yu, who was advancing south in an attempt to retake the lost commanderies. The territorial dispute was eventually resolved when both Sun Quan and Liu Bei agreed to divide Jing Province between their respective domains along the Xiang River.

Conflict with Gan Ning

Ling Tong had never forgiven Gan Ning for killing his father Ling Cao. Gan Ning was always on the defensive against Ling Tong and he tried to avoid meeting Ling whenever possible. Sun Quan also ordered Ling Tong to not seek vengeance on Gan Ning. Despite so, the two of them nearly exchanged blows in an incident during a banquet held in Lü Meng's house. When Ling Tong was performing a sword dance to entertain the guests, Gan Ning stood up and said: "I can also perform with my pair of jis." Lü Meng told Gan Ning: "You may be good in performing, but you aren't as good as me." He then drew his sword and carried a shield and stood between Ling Tong and Gan Ning to separate them. When Sun Quan heard about the incident, he reassigned Gan Ning to another garrison at Banzhou (半州).

Battle of Xiaoyao Ford

After reaffirming his alliance with Liu Bei, Sun Quan personally led an army to attack Hefei, which was defended by Cao Cao's general Zhang Liao, in order to divert Cao Cao's attention away from Hanzhong Commandery. Ling Tong served as a Commandant of the Right Section (右部督) during this campaign. Sun Quan's forces suffered heavy losses in the early skirmishes against Zhang Liao and were unable to conquer Hefei. When a plague broke out among his troops, Sun Quan decided to give up on the campaign and retreat.

At Xiaoyao Ford (逍遥津), Sun Quan's other divisions retreated first while Sun Quan himself remained behind with about only 1,000 men and a few officers, including Lü Meng, Jiang Qin, Ling Tong and Gan Ning. When Zhang Liao saw that, he immediately led his troops out of Hefei to launch a counterattack and completely took Sun Quan by surprise. Sun Quan wanted to recall the divisions which had retreated first but realised they could not return in time. Ling Tong led 300 men to break into the enemy encirclement to rescue his lord. After Sun Quan managed to escape by making his horse jump across the broken bridge and reach the other side of the ford, Ling Tong returned to the battlefield and continued to fight on and slay dozens of enemies. He sustained several wounds all over his body and all his men were killed. He only retreated when he assessed the situation and concluded that Sun Quan was safe.

As the bridge had already been destroyed, Ling Tong had to wade through the water with his armour on. By then, Sun Quan had already boarded a ship and he was surprised and delighted to see Ling Tong still alive. Ling Tong was very saddened as all his close aides had died and he could not contain his sorrow. Sun Quan wiped Ling Tong's tears and said: "Gongji, let the dead go. As long as you live, why worry that you will have no men under you?" As Ling Tong's injuries were very severe, Sun Quan kept him on board the ship and let him have a change of clothing. With the aid of quality medicine, Ling Tong managed to survive. He was promoted to Lieutenant-General (偏将军) later and given twice the number of troops he originally commanded.

Pacifying the Shanyue

The Shanyue were tribal peoples rooted in the Wuyue region of ancient China during the Han dynasty. Since the southern part of China was not directly administered by the Han government even though it was Han territory in name, the Shanyue people performed regular raids against Han citizens to gather living essentials. The Shanyue had been a nuisance for the Sun family and their forces since they first set foot in Jiangdong.

Sun Quan had launched countless campaigns against them, but to no avail because the Shanyue had been living in the hills for a long time, were familiar with the area, and would go into hiding once they lost a battle. However, Ling Tong attempted a different approach to deal with the Shanyue. He proposed that Sun Quan attempt to win the hearts of the Shanyue and assimilate them instead of purely using military force to hamper them. He reasoned that if they could impress the Shanyue with the dignity of Sun Quan's administration and potential rewards, the Shanyue would succumb to them without bloodshed. After he was granted the staff of authority to request materiel from counties when required, he led a unit with flamboyant weapons and armour to begin his grand tactics. When the Shanyue discovered Sun Quan's forces after the latter had already ventured deep into their territories, they were indeed stunned by Ling Tong's unit; then Ling came out and told them if they would join Sun Quan's army, handsome rewards would be offered. Ling Tong's plan was a great success – tens of thousands of Shanyue men came out from their homes and joined him. He then selected 10,000 able-bodied men to form a unit and returned. Because of Ling Tong's success, his strategy would be adopted and modified by Zhuge Ke, another Wu general, at a later time.

Death

During his journey to the Shanyue territories, Ling Tong passed by his hometown and stopped there for a visit. He treated the townsfolk with the utmost respect and humility even though he had achieved fame and glory. He died of illness on the return journey at the age of 28. When Sun Quan heard of Ling Tong's death, he was filled with grief for several days. In recognition of Ling Tong's contributions to his regime, Sun Quan ordered Zhang Cheng to write a eulogy for Ling Tong.

Descendants

Ling Tong's two sons – Ling Lie (凌烈) and Ling Feng (凌封) – were both very young when their father died. Sun Quan brought them to his palace and treated them as though they were his sons. When guests came to visit him, he pointed at Ling Tong's sons and said: "They are my tiger boys." When Ling Tong's sons reached the age of seven or eight, Sun Quan ordered Ge Guang (葛光) to teach them to read and write, and train them in horse-riding every ten days. When Ling Lie became older, in recognition of his father's meritorious service, Sun Quan granted him the title of a village marquis (亭侯) and placed him in charge of the unit which used to be commanded by his father. Ling Lie lost his marquis title later and was discharged from service because he committed an offence; the title and military post were passed on to Ling Feng.

Appraisal

Ling Tong respected and befriended members of the scholar-gentry. They admired him even though he was a military serviceman. Being receptive, he had a reputation for being accommodating towards men of talent. Even when he was busy with work, he always took time to receive visitors. He viewed righteousness and loyalty as important values and saw wealth as inferior. He was thus praised by Chen Shou as a guoshi. Once, Sun Quan's subjects recommended a famous talent, Sheng Xian, to him. Ling Tong was asleep when he heard that Sheng Xian had arrived to meet his lord. He immediately got out of bed to receive Sheng Xian and held Sheng's hand while leading him to meet Sun Quan.

Ling Tong was reputed to have a strong sense of righteousness. During the battle at Nan Commandery, Zhou Yu ordered Gan Ning to attack Yiling (夷陵; around present-day Yichang, Hubei). Cao Ren sent an army to attack Gan Ning and had him surrounded. Gan Ning hurriedly requested for reinforcements, but the generals did not have enough men to spare to save him and believed it was not sagacious to send reinforcements because that would dilute the main army. Lü Meng spoke up, saying that they should help Gan Ning. He proposed to Zhou Yu that Ling Tong stay behind to keep Cao Ren in check while the rest of the generals go to reinforce Gan Ning. Lü Meng boldly asserted that he had confidence that Ling Tong could hold on for ten days. Ling Tong then took up his duties with responsibility. He countered Cao Ren's attacks alone, and bought time for the other generals to rescue Gan Ning.

Ling Tong was also brave in admitting his mistakes and displayed fervent determination in his actions. In his earlier years, he struck down a superior officer called Chen Qin, who earlier insulted him and his late father. The incident caused Chen Qin to die of severe wounds several days later. Ling Tong then fought recklessly in the battle against the bandits after exclaiming that only through death could he cleanse his deep guilt. Thus, his attack turned out to be a huge success, yet he bound himself and surrendered to the discipline officer after the victorious battle to await his punishment. However, Sun Quan pardoned him on account of his achievements and promoted him to a higher military rank.

In Romance of the Three Kingdoms

Ling Tong is a character in the 14th-century historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms, which romanticises the historical events before and during the Three Kingdoms period. Although his role in the novel is generally similar to that of his historical counterpart, his conflict with Gan Ning is highly dramatised.

In Chapter 67, during a banquet to celebrate their victory over Cao Cao's forces at Wan County, Ling Tong feels jealous when he sees Lü Meng praising Gan Ning so he offers to perform a sword dance and wants to use the opportunity to kill Gan Ning and avenge his father. Gan Ning senses Ling Tong's intention so he also offers to perform with his pair of jis. When Lü Meng realises that they are about to get into a fight, he draws his sword, carries a shield and stands in the middle to separate them. When Sun Quan hears about the incident, he comes to the banquet hall, orders them to lay down their weapons, and chides them for fighting among themselves. As Ling Tong kneels down and weeps, Sun Quan tries to calm him down and repeatedly urges him to stop provoking Gan Ning.

In Chapter 68, after the Battle of Xiaoyao Ford, when Ling Tong engages Yue Jin in a duel, Cao Xiu fires an arrow which hits Ling Tong's horse and causes Ling Tong to fall off the horse's back. Just as Yue Jin moves in for the kill, he suddenly gets hit by an arrow in the face. Both sides immediately rush forth to rescue their respective generals and withdraw their forces after that. Later, Ling Tong is surprised to learn that it was Gan Ning who saved him. He kneels down, thanks Gan Ning for saving his life, and begs for forgiveness. Gan Ning forgives him. Since then, Ling Tong forgets his past feud with Gan Ning and they become close friends.

In popular culture

Ling Tong is featured as a playable character in Koei's Dynasty Warriors and Warriors Orochi video game series. He also appears in all instalments of Koei's Romance of the Three Kingdoms series.