名號與稱呼

孔子在世時被譽為「天縱之聖」、「天之木鐸」，西漢時由董仲舒倡議，漢武帝施行「獨尊儒術」政策，後世統治者或孔教信徒陸續尊稱孔子為聖人、文聖、至聖、至聖先師、大成至聖先師、萬世師表。道教稱號：太極上真九疑主宰文昌皇人玄聖道君、東海廣桑山真君、闡猷大帝、興儒盛世天尊。在朝廷影響之下，孔子在民間地位亦愈加崇高，最後被神格化，為智慧之神。

而一般對孔子的慣用敬稱為孔夫子，英語等西方語言中的Confucius則是「孔夫子」（Con-Fu-Ci）的拉丁語化。

生平經歷

家系與出生

孔子為魯國人，遠祖是殷商王室，武王克殷後，他的祖先分封到宋國。

其十六世祖是殷商帝乙，十五世祖為宋國第二任國君宋公仲，十二世祖是宋閔公，十一世祖弗父何讓位給弟宋厲公，拜為宋國上卿。七世祖孔父嘉是宋國大夫，曾為大司馬，在宮廷內亂中被殺，孔父嘉子木金父避災逃到魯國的陬邑定居，作魯國的大夫。

孔子的父親叔梁紇居于魯昌平鄉陬邑，為陬邑大夫。叔梁紇與原配施氏連出九個女兒，他望子心切，於是續娶一妾，得一子名孟皮，卻腳有殘疾。，由於婚姻不合禮制，被史書稱為野合，約在魯襄公廿二年（公元前551年）生下孔丘。顏徵在曾私下至尼丘山祭祀尼丘山神以求子，故取名丘，字仲尼。

儀容

• 孔子生而首上圩頂，而孔子，名「丘」，即是來源于此的說法。而唐朝司馬貞認為：「圩言烏。頂音鼎。圩頂言頂上窳也，故孔子頂如反宇。反宇者，若屋宇之反，中低而四傍高也。」即孔子頭頂中部有凹陷。清朝陳立相信此說，「是孔子首形象邱，四方高，中下，故名丘焉。」史學家錢穆在《孔子傳略》中也持此說。

• 孔子身高九尺六寸（據中國度量衡條，周尺一尺約19.1公分，八寸為一尺，則孔子身高約186公分；戰國時期為一尺23.1公分，十寸為一尺，則孔子身高為221.76公分。以春秋時期的魯尺應遵循周制而言，則《孔子世家》所載之九尺六寸，當為186公分。）被後世稱為「長人」，這是孔子父親的遺傳。據《左傳·襄公十年》曾記載：孟獻子曾稱讚孔子父親叔梁紇能力舉城門，說：「這就是《詩經》所說的『像老虎一樣有力氣』的人。」

早年經歷

孔丘的父親叔梁紇在其三歲時便去世。叔梁紇死後，顏氏移居曲阜闕里，將其撫養成人。孔丘早年生活困苦，因此從事了多種工作。但對於禮儀相關的事務特別有興趣，常將祭祀用的禮器（俎豆）擺設起來，練習行禮演禮，作為一種遊戲。

顏徵在於孔丘17歲時去世，孔子希望將父母合葬，但顏氏生前未將墓的所在地告訴孔丘。為了打聽父親葬處，他將母親棺殯停于路口（五父之衢），向路人打聽。顏徵在的鄰居曼父之母，告訴孔子叔梁紇的墓處，孔子這才將父母合葬于魯國東部的防山。第二年，孔子在為母親守喪時，季孫氏宴請士一級的人（饗士）。孔子前往，不想卻被季孫氏家臣陽虎訓斥並拒絕。但後世學者多懷疑此事有偽。

19歲時，孔丘為魯國貴族季孫氏做文書、委吏和乘田等小吏，管理倉儲和畜牧。娶宋人亓官氏為妻，第二年亓官氏生子。魯昭公派人送鯉魚表示祝賀，該子便名為孔鯉，字伯魚。孔鯉先孔子而死，有遺腹子孔伋，字子思。23歲時孔子開始在鄉間收徒講學，顏由（顏回之父）、曾點（曾參之父）、冉耕成為孔丘的第一批學生。

魯昭公十七年，郯國國君郯子訪魯。郯子博學多才，27歲的孔子慕名拜見。韓愈《師說》有語：「孔子師郯子。」孔子先後「問禮於老聃，學鼓琴於師襄子，訪樂於萇弘。」。大約三十歲左右，最初的一些弟子來到孔子身邊。此後，孔子一直從事教育事業，他廣收門徒，相傳弟子三千，賢人七十二。他首倡有教無類及因材施教，成為當時學術下移、私人講學的先驅和代表，故後人尊為「萬世師表」及「至聖先師」。

適齊

三十五歲時，魯昭公被魯國掌權的三桓季孫氏、叔孫氏、孟孫氏擊敗，逃到齊國，孔子便離開魯國到齊國，為高昭子家臣。孔子曾與齊太師談說音樂，聞習韶樂之盛美，三月不知肉味。齊景公問政於孔子，孔子說：「君君，臣臣，父父，子子。」齊景公說：「善哉！信如君不君，臣不臣，父不父，子不子。雖有粟，吾得而食諸？」他日又問政於孔子，孔子說：「政在節財。」景公想封孔子為尼谿田大夫，遭齊相國晏嬰進言勸阻，晏嬰認為孔子會干擾齊國的文化。後來得知有齊大夫欲害孔子，景公沒有辦法，只好辭退孔子，孔子則重回魯國，聚徒講學。

初仕魯國

魯定公九年，51歲的孔子仕魯，初為中都宰（中都為今山東汶上縣），一年後做季孫氏司空，再升為魯國大司寇，期間行攝相事。

魯定公十年，魯定公與齊景公會于夾谷，孔子成功說服齊歸還侵占魯的汶陽等地。

魯定公十三年，孔子為重新確立魯公室的權威，策劃實施「隳三都」的政治軍事行動，希望能夠削減三桓麾下的實力，于是先墮叔孫氏之郈，再墮季孫氏之費，後因沒能圍攻孟孫氏的郕邑，功敗垂成。

魯定公十四年，孔子誅殺魯大夫亂政者少正卯；但有看法認為少正卯事件是受到法家思想影響的後世學者所杜撰。

由於孔子治下魯國頗有起色，引起齊人警懼，齊大夫黎鉏設計，向魯贈送女樂文馬使魯定公不問朝政，並讓孔子與魯定公、季桓子等人之間在道德與政策上的分歧難以彌合，最終孔子去魯仕衞。

周遊列國

離開魯國以後，孔子率眾弟子周遊列國，輾轉于衞、曹、宋、鄭、陳、蔡、葉、楚等地，然而均未獲重用。其間，在匡、宋、蒲等地，孔子一行多次被困遇險。

留衞期間

孔子到了衞國，在前往陳地時，途經匡城，顏刻舉策指著郭外缺口說：「昔吾入此，由彼缺也。」因孔子身材高大，被匡人誤以為是魯國的陽虎，而遭圍捕。子路感到憤怒，奪戟準備交戰，但被孔子阻止。過程中孔子曾與顏回失散，一度以為顏回已死。

衞靈公提供孔子與仕魯時同等的俸祿。居住一段時間後，遭人誣諂而離開。

孔子在蒲城滯留幾個月後返回衞國，衞靈公夫人南子非常想見孔子，並派人逼孔子去謁見她。孔子不得已就去了，臉朝著北面，低頭俯地，不敢正視她；她亦於帷幕中再拜孔子。子路得知南子見孔子之後，為此事甚感不滿，孔子心裏明白，便對著子路向天發誓說：「我如果做了錯事的話，就讓老天處罰我吧！」數月後，衞靈公與夫人南子同車，孔子為次，其餘官員在後，招搖遊市而過。孔子對此事引以為恥，顏刻問有何恥辱，孔子感嘆：「我還從未遇見過好德勝過好色的人啊！」便離開衞國。

過宋之危

孔子到了宋國以後，在大樹下和弟子習禮。宋司馬桓魋欲殺孔子，將大樹拔除。弟子打算盡速離去，孔子說：「上天給了我德行，桓魋能把我怎麼樣呢？」

相失於鄭

孔子在鄭國時，與弟子失散，孔子獨自站立在外郭的東門。有人告知子貢，東門有人的額頭像堯，脖子像皋陶，肩膀像子產，腿長比禹短了三寸，但狼狽得像「喪家（喪事人家）之犬」。弟子終把孔子尋回，並將此話告訴孔子，孔子欣然笑曰：「形容我說像那些聖賢的樣貌，還在其次。但說我像條『喪家之犬』，真的講得很對、很對！」

受困陳蔡

周敬王三十一年（魯哀公六年，前489年）壬子，吳伐陳、楚伐蔡之際，楚昭王派人聘請孔子，孔子隨即出發。陳、蔡大夫懼怕孔子為楚國所用，便將孔子圍困在陳、蔡野外，孔子等人不得行，絕糧七日，許多弟子病倒不起。弟子中多有不快者，孔子仍舊講誦不絕。後來派子貢至楚，楚昭王興師迎接孔子。孔子在楚國期間，楚昭王一度想封給孔子七百里土地，令尹子西以孔子手下人才濟濟，如果獲得封地將來會威脅楚國統治為由勸阻了昭王。

晚年

顛沛流離凡十四年，前484年，年近七十歲的孔子被季康子派人迎回魯國尊為國老，但未受魯哀公的任用，這段期間孔子專注于教育和古籍整理。前483年，獨子孔鯉先孔子而死。前481年，顏回先他而去世。孔子有所感慨：「昔從我於陳蔡者，皆不及門也。」哀公十四年夏，齊國陳恆弒其君，孔子齋戒沐浴三天，向哀公懇請伐齊，哀公讓他「去問季孫氏」，後孔子向季康子請求出兵，但被其拒絕。公元前479年3月9日（魯哀公十六年四月己丑日，儒略曆3月9日，格里曆3月4日，夏曆二月十一），孔子逝世，享年73歲（滿71周歲，虛歲73歲），死後被葬于曲阜城北的泗水岸邊。眾弟子為其服喪3年，子貢為孔子守墓6年。

回首一生，孔子說：「吾十有五而志于學，三十而立，四十而不惑，五十而知天命，六十而耳順，七十而從心所欲，不逾矩。」

理念

思想方面

「仁」的人生哲學

孔子會針對不同的弟子與不同的時機來講述「仁」，因材施教。大致來說，孔子的「仁」就是曾子所說的「忠恕」二字而已。孔子又說：「剛毅、木訥，近仁」、「巧言令色，鮮矣仁」在告訴我們「仁道」就是真誠踏實，切忌浮誇不實而違逆正道。

• 子貢有一次問孔子：「如有博施於民，而能濟眾，何如？可謂仁乎？」孔子說：「何事於仁，必也聖乎！堯舜其猶病諸！夫仁者，己欲立而立人，己欲達而達人。能近取譬，可謂仁之方也已。」孔子告訴子貢行仁不必好高騖遠，從自身做起，再推己及人。

• 顓孫師志向太高，孔子認為他的個性可能流於偏激，所以孔子告訴顓孫師行仁的方法有五道：「恭、寬、信、敏、惠。恭則不侮，寬則得眾，信則人任焉，敏則有功，惠則足以使人。」孔子告訴顓孫師行仁要從「嚴以律己，寬以待人」著手。對於自己的修養要嚴謹，對待別人則是恭敬寬容，又能厚待別人，如此才是行仁的方法。

• 顏淵是孔門弟子中的模範生，孔子曾稱讚他「其心三月不違仁」。孔子只希望他能用「禮」來進一步約束自己就可以了。《論語·顏淵》一章：「顏淵問仁。子曰：『克己複禮為仁。一日克己複禮，天下歸仁焉。為仁由己，而由人乎哉？』顏淵曰：『請問其目。』子曰：『非禮勿視，非禮勿聽，非禮勿言，非禮勿動。』顏淵曰：『回雖不敏，請事斯語矣。』」

• 冉雍品德優良，又有政治才幹，曾任季氏宰。當他問仁時，孔子說：「出門如見大賓，使民如承大祭。己所不欲，勿施於人。在邦無怨，在家無怨。」孔子的回答比較偏向政治層面。孔子告訴冉雍行仁的方法就是待人恭敬，使民寬愛，如此一來，大眾對你都沒有怨恨，就是行仁政。

• 司馬牛言多而躁。當他問起孔子什麼是仁，孔子告訴他「仁者其言也訒」，揭示慎言的重要。

• 當子貢問仁時，孔子用比喻的手法來告訴他「以友輔仁」的重要：「工欲善其事，必先利其器。居是邦也，事其大夫之賢者，友其士之仁者。」

• 孔子又諄諄告誡我們：「當仁，不讓於師」、「無求生以害仁，有殺身以成仁」以及「君子去仁，惡乎成名？君子無終食之間違仁，造次必於是，顛沛必於是」。

「禮」的社會秩序

• 禮，就是「節制」，宋明儒者也解作「理」。《司馬遷·太史公自序》有：「禮以節人，樂以發和。」我們來看孔子對於禮的闡釋：

　• 《論語·泰伯》：「子曰：『恭而無禮則勞，慎而無禮則葸，勇而無禮則亂，直而無禮則絞。』」

• 禮，也是「真情」，而且在上位者必須作為人民的表率。所以孔子接著說：

　• 『君子篤於親，則民興於仁；故舊不遺，則民不偷。』

• 禮，不是浪費鋪張，而是真情流露；寧願節儉簡陋，也不奢侈浮誇：

　• 《論語·八佾》：「林放問禮之本。子曰:『大哉問！禮，與其奢也，寧儉；喪，與其易也，寧戚。』」

　• 《論語·陽貨》：「子曰：『禮云禮云，玉帛云乎哉？樂雲樂雲，鐘鼓云乎哉？』」

• 禮，是對天地萬物的尊重。藉由對禮法的好問，來表達自己對於天地的敬意：

　• 《論語·八佾》：「子入太廟，每事問。或曰:『孰謂鄹人之子知禮乎？入太廟，每事問。』子聞之，曰：『是禮也。』」

君子與小人

君子與小人雖然是以身份地位區分開來的，但孔子不認為這是唯一的差別，更重要的在於修養和境界。對此孔子有很多說明，如他說：「君子中庸，小人反中庸。」中庸（「不偏不倚，無過不及」），是修養的最高境界，同時也是方法，有著豐富而精微的內涵，並提出（「君子正其衣冠，尊其瞻視，儼然人望而畏之，斯不亦威而不猛乎」）的說法，表示端正服飾是君子的重要大事。近百年來，不少人反感於中庸，大概是將它誤解為同流合污、媚世自是、毫無原則的偽君子行徑，其實這樣的鄉愿也正是孔子所深惡痛絕的，他說：「鄉愿，德之賊也。」他認為，如果不能達到中庸，狂狷是次好的境界，畢竟「狂者進取，狷者有所不為」。

孔子又說：

• 「君子喻于義，小人喻于利。」

• 「君子博學於文，約之以禮，亦可以弗畔矣夫！」

• 「質勝文則野，文勝質則史，文質彬彬，然後君子。」

• 「君子坦蕩蕩，小人長戚戚。」

• 「君子食無求飽，居無求安，敏于事而慎于言，就有道而正焉，可謂好學也已。」

• 「君子道者三：仁者不憂，知者不惑，勇者不懼。」

• 「君子不以言舉人，不以人廢言。」

• 「君子泰而不驕，小人驕而不泰。」

• 「君子固窮，小人窮斯濫矣。」

• 「君子周而不比，小人比而不周。」

• 「君子和而不同，小人同而不和。」

• 「君君臣臣父父子子。」

教育方面

孔子主張育德為先，後以全面發展「志於道，據於德，依於仁，游於藝。」，「行有餘力，則以學文。」

• 有教無類：人都有受教育的權利

• 因材施教：了解學生根據不同的人與個性，進行洽如其分的教導「不憤不啟 不悱不發。舉一隅不以三隅反 則不復也。」

• 實事求事：「知之為知之，不知為不知，是知也。」

• 知行合一：「學而不思則罔，思而不學則殆。」

• 學以致用：「知百工居肆，以成其事，君子學以致其道。」

哲學方面

孔子提倡中庸之道，中庸就是以中為用的意思，意義就是折中、平衡、不偏不倚，力戒片面，「樂而不淫，哀而不傷」「、「溫而厲， 威而不猛」。

權變：孔子強調執中但並不執泥強調不要頑固可以變通，「可與立，未可與權」「不得中行而與之，必也狂狷乎！狂者進取，狷者有所不為也。」

政治方面

治理：孔子懷念周公，欲從周禮，希望「齊一變至於魯，魯一變至於道。」主張德治與禮治，用禮樂教化治理國家，政令刑罰居次。遵循堯舜之道，效法周文王、周武王之制。

經濟：孔子維護西周的井田制反對季康子的以田賦，展現了保守的立場。

宗教觀

，孔子對宗廟中的祭禮很有研究，當作一種社會禮節來從事，但反而對宗教不太涉獵，最有名的一句是「子不語怪力亂神」；其他還有「天何言哉？四時行焉，百物生焉，天何言哉？」；「敬鬼神而遠之」；「未能事人，焉能事鬼？」所以目前一般認為孔子相信「或許有鬼神」，但更注重現實，認為「不用討論鬼神」。

但孔子對天神也沒有否定，孔子說過：「鬼神之為德，其盛矣乎！」由「獲罪於天，無所禱也。」；「天生德於予，桓魋其如予何？」可知其為宿命論者：由「不知天命，無以為君子」，可知孔子是天命論者，可能認為有一個「人格天」的存在。

。所謂的「獲罪於天」只是說「犯下滔天大罪」，並不指得罪上天。「天生德於予，桓魋其如予何？」只是認為「自己是正義而必勝」。所謂的「天命」，只是說「崇高的使命」而已：「鬼神之為德，其盛矣乎」是告訴弟子們「祭祀的意義」，且孔子在《論語》中「多次不願討論鬼神」的作為，可能接近無神論，但孔子因為時代因素等並不願直述。

主要成就

孔子所處的春秋時代，西周社會以血緣氏族為基礎的政治制度崩潰瓦解，一些人開始思考天道、人生和世界秩序等方面的問題，原先由貴族所壟斷的文化教育也正逐漸流入民間。孔子正是這時代精神的代表人物之一，遂開戰國諸子百家之先河。《易傳》、《春秋》、《孝經》、《論語》是了解其本人思想的主要著作。

孔子開創了易學，並由他率先提出了「性善論」（「一陰一陽之謂道，繼之者善也，成之者性也」）作為其「仁學」的哲學基礎，他辯論仁義，「分陰分陽，迭用柔剛」，「曰仁曰義」，又論及六畫，「六位而成章（彰）」。

為政之道

正名是孔子最重要的政治主張。可以從下面這個故事來徹底了解孔子「正名」的涵義:

當孔子三度至衛時，衛國發生了一件大事。原來先前衛靈公寵愛夫人南子，想要把公位傳給南子的庶子。於是，嫡長子蒯聵便企圖暗殺南子以保公位。不幸謀殺計畫未成，而衛靈公得知此一消息之後勃然大怒，欲弒子蒯聵。蒯聵逃亡至晉，衛靈公便與晉國宣戰。就在衛靈公想要請教孔子有關兵陣之事時，孔子說:「俎豆之事，則嘗學之。軍旅之事，未之學也。」隔天孔子便感慨萬千地離開衛國。現在靈公過世，蒯聵又不在國內，蒯聵子輒便繼承公位，是為衛出公。但是，就在此時，蒯聵亦在晉軍護送下回到衛國，父子便為了爭奪公位而反目成仇。孔子看在眼裡十分傷心。有一天，子路問孔子：「衛君待子而為政，子將奚先?」孔子便對子路不厭其煩地說：「名不正則言不順，言不順則事不成，事不成則禮樂不興，禮樂不興則刑罰不中，刑罰不中則民無所措手足。」

正名的目的在於維系一個秩序良好的社會，使人們有一定的規範遵循，而不致生活在一種不可預期的狀態之中。很多人認為孔子希望能夠恢復西周的禮樂，也有一些人認為他只是以復古的名義鼓吹一種新的世界秩序。

立信，對于孔子而言，不僅是個人的美德，而且是一個基本的政治原則。子貢請教為政的要點，孔子說：「足食，足兵，民信之矣。」而其中最重要的是第三點，他說：「自古皆有死，民無信不立。」

德治，孔子認為：「道之以政，齊之以刑，民免而無恥。道之以德，齊之以禮，有恥且格。」孔子曾任掌刑罰的大司寇，他怎會不知道嚴刑峻罰立竿見影的效果呢?但是，孔子深深感受到「民免而無恥」的社會隱憂，所以才提倡用道德倫理來教化人民，徹底洗滌人心，激發人的善性，才是經世濟民的正途。

教育理念與教學實況

孔子教學的項目有四：文、行、忠、信。文，指詩書禮樂等古代文獻；行，是德行；忠，意指盡心盡力；信，即為誠實無欺。孔子對於古代文獻十分重視，尤其是詩、禮、樂。他認為這三項學問對於人的性情養成非常重要。《論語·泰伯》：子曰：「興於詩，立於禮，成於樂。」詩，可以使人興起好善惡惡之心；禮，使人進退得宜，進而可以立身於世；樂，可以使人養成完美的人格。順道一提，孔子曾經這樣稱讚詩經：「小子，何莫學夫詩！詩，可以興，可以觀，可以群，可以怨。邇之事父，遠之事君，多識於鳥獸草木之名。」

學不厭、教不倦，使孔子成為中國的「大成至聖先師」。他主張「有教無類」，學生多至三千人，從《論語》書上看來，他教導學生的只是人生日常所必經問題的解答，以及人與人相處所必備條件的闡明。其道合理而平凡，易知易行；然而用之於身則身修，用之於家則家齊，用之於國則國治，用之於天下則天下平。

三千弟子和七十二位精通六藝的弟子

據《史記》記載，孔子有弟子三千，其中精通六藝者七十二人，稱「七十二賢人」。

孔子有十位傑出弟子，號稱孔門十哲：

• 在德行方面出眾的有：顏回（顏淵）、閔損（閔子騫）、冉耕（伯牛）、冉雍（仲弓）。

• 在言語方面出眾的有：宰予（宰我）、端木賜（子貢）。

• 在文學方面出眾的有：言偃（子游）、卜商（子夏）。

• 在政事方面出眾的有：冉求（冉有）、仲由（子路）。

十哲以外，在文學方面出眾的有顓孫師（子張）、曾參（子輿）、澹臺滅明（子羽）、原憲（子思）、公冶長（子長）、樊須（樊遲）、有若（子有）、公西赤（子華）。

孔子死後，「七十子之徒散游諸侯，大者為師傅卿相，小者友教士大夫。」這樣就在政治上打破了貴族壟斷的世卿世祿制，為專制君主自由任免布衣卿相的官僚體制創造了條件。

整理編修古籍

• 相傳孔子作史書《春秋》（《孟子·滕文公下》：「孔子作春秋而亂臣賊子懼」），微言大義，寄託政治理想。（現在一般認為《春秋》是孔子編輯魯國原始史料後寄託其政治理想之作，也有少數學者認為《春秋》非孔子所編撰。）《春秋》一書所載年代（前722年到前481年）就稱為春秋時代。

• 孔子門人及其再傳弟子將其學說結輯成《論語》，是為研究孔子思想的主要文獻。漢代定型的《禮記》一書中也曾記述孔子的思想（如其中的《大學》 及《中庸》等），又有記錄孔門思想的《孔子家語》一書，傳統上被認為多偽撰，但近年漸得學界重視。

• 南宋時，朱熹將《論語》以及《禮記》中的《大學》、《中庸》兩篇與反映亞聖孟子思想的《孟子》一書合在一起撰寫了《四書集注》，是謂四書。

• 四書與《詩》（詩經）、《書》（尚書）、《禮》（禮記）、《易》（易經）、《春秋》五部經典合稱「四書五經」，乃儒家學說之核心經典。佚失的《樂經》有關「儒家論樂的一套基本觀點」已經面世。郭店簡原名叫《性自命出》的篇章前半部是專門論樂的。

• 孔子刪詩書，定禮樂，贊周易，作春秋。

家族

孔子身後，七世單傳，至第九代才有孔鮒、孔騰、孔樹兄弟三人。孔子後裔秉承祖先「詩禮傳家」之祖訓，在文學、經學等方面都有較大成就，在明清時期更因為得到皇帝扶持，成為「天下第一家」。

影響

形象

西漢公羊學相信孔子受天命而為王，是一個沒有王位的王，即「素王」，他「為漢製法」，所作的《春秋》代表了一王之法。漢代緯書中，孔子被神化為神，如春秋緯《演孔圖》說孔子是「黑帝」的兒子。

孔子與中華文化

孔子雖為諸子之一，但「祖述堯舜，憲章文武」，本是中華文化的集大成者。秦朝以法家學說治天下，西漢武帝前推行黃老之術而以「無為」治國。漢武帝時董仲舒提出「罷黷百家，表章六經」，確立鞏固了孔子學說在中華文化中的主軸地位，恢復六經的正統地位，孔子也成為中華文化的代表人物。邵雍指出，「孔子贊《易》自羲、軒而下，序《書》自堯、舜而下，刪《詩》自文、武而下，修《春秋》自桓、文而下。自羲、軒而下，祖三皇也；自堯、舜而下，宗五帝也；自文、武而下，子三王也。自桓、文而下，孫五伯也。」，這就是說，孔子整理「六經」，對三皇、五帝、三王、五伯以來文化的進行綜合，所謂集大成也。國學大師柳翼謀以孔子為「中國文化之中心」，「其前數千年之文化，賴孔子而傳；其後數千年之文化，賴孔子而開；無孔子，則無中國文化」。錢穆亦認為「孔子為中國曆史上第一聖人。在孔子以前，中國曆史文化當已有兩千五百年以上之積累，而孔子集其大成。在孔子以後，中國曆史文化又複有兩千五百年以上之演進，而孔子開其新統。在此五千多年，中國曆史進程之指示，中國文化理想之建立，具有最深影響最大貢獻者，殆無人堪與孔子相比倫。」宋儒朱熹曾歎曰：「天不生仲尼，萬古如長夜」《朱子語類，卷九十三》。

孔子學說在中國周邊地區，如：朝鮮半島（漢代傳入）、日本（唐代傳入）、越南（宋明傳承）等地，都有及於深遠的精神影響，形成了東亞儒家文化圈。

近現代以來的新發展

清末到民國時期

孔子言論在近現代以來的新發展就是新儒學，又稱新儒家，是近代西方文明輸入中國以後，在中西文明碰撞交融條件下產生的新的儒家學派。狹義的新儒學，是指梁漱溟、張君勱、熊十力等人所提倡的新儒學。廣義的新儒學則可上溯到鴉片戰爭以來關于儒學變革的所有學說。

從鴉片戰爭到戊戌變法是新儒學的準備階段，這一階段主要表現為儒家學者在西方文明衝擊之下被動接受西方文明的一些內容以求自強，「中學為體，西學為用」是這一階段的代表思想。

從戊戌變法到辛亥革命是新儒學的萌芽階段，這一階段主要表現為康有為、梁啓超等人日趨成熟的托古改制的社會改良思想，即用儒學來解釋改良思想。代表作有《大同書》等。

從戊戌變法到五四運動是新儒學的嬗變階段，這一階段主要表現為孫文的籍古創製，孫文在學習西方民主經驗和思考西方弊政的基礎上，仿慕儒家體制創立了政權與治權分立的民權學說和五權分立的政體學說。在《建國方略》中慕仿周禮制訂了非常詳細的「結會」「動議」等程序和儀規；在《民族主義》講稿中以恢復「忠孝、仁愛、信義、和平」等儒家道德，作為複興民族的基礎；在《民權主義》講稿中以儒家「聖賢才智平庸愚劣」的觀念來講解真平等與假平等的分野。在《民生主義》講稿中以儒家倡導的大同主義作為民生主義和社會主義的同義語。

從五四運動到中華人民共和國建立是新儒學的開宗明義階段，這一階段主要表現為梁漱溟、張君勱、熊十力等人開始在「新儒學」旗幟下進行的儒學研究。新儒學開宗的政治基礎是當時的官方意識形態三民主義中含有儒學的內容。這一階段的特徵是：新儒學的活動主要體現于思想領域；新儒學的目標是在匯通中西文化的前提下解釋和發展儒學。代表作有梁漱溟的《東西文化及其哲學》、《人心與人生》、賀麟的《儒家思想的新開展》等，尤其是梁漱溟的《人心與人生》可謂現世之見孔子之真者。主要成果是熊十力繼承陸王心學構築的「新儒學思想體系」和馮友蘭的「新理學」。總的說來，新儒學基本上是以儒學的「內聖外王」為立宗之本的，它是在儒學遭到普遍責難的時候出現的。這一階段的新儒學在思想研究領域進行了一些探索，但是沒有對社會發展產生有價值的影響。

中華人民共和國時期

從中華人民共和國建立到中國文化大革命結束是新儒學的沉寂階段，這一階段不僅中國大陸的新儒學研究歸于沉寂，海外新儒學亦甚少成績。

;批林批孔運動

在文化大革命期間，中國共產黨中央委員會主席毛澤東提及「我贊成秦始皇，不贊成孔夫子」。至1974年，中國大陸發起「批林批孔」運動。這個運動流於外在形式，沒有做真正的內在革新，黎鳴因此說到：「毛澤東事實上還在繼續繼承孔丘及其儒家的「親親尊尊長長」的價值觀，還在繼續堅持孔丘及其儒家所倡導的說謊的「文化」和禁言的「政治」。」

中國大陸各地的孔廟的文物古蹟因此遭到了很大的破壞，連孔子墓亦被炸開，「大成至聖先師文宣王」大碑被砸斷，廟碑、孔廟的泥胎塑像被搗毀。文化大革命時期批孔者辱稱孔子為孔老二；明代之後衍聖公的墳墓全部被破壞，甚至有人將掘出的尸體挂于樹上。並有詆毀孔子的著作，例如《孔老二罪惡的一生》傳世。

文化大革命結束以後是新儒學的恢復和發展階段。這一階段尚在進行之中。恢復階段的主要特徵是過去的一些新儒學著作重新進入人們的視野，學術界開始反思和討論新儒學的功過利弊。發展階段的主要特徵是在過去「新儒學」研究的基礎上，對儒學和新儒學進行徹底的和全面的去糟取精古為今用。發展階段的新儒學是當代和諧文化的組成部分，新興的「大眾儒學」是當代新儒學發展的最高成果。

;天安門豎孔子像

總高9.5公尺的孔子像於2011年1月11日豎立在天安門以東的國家博物館北門廣場，但是第99天時孔子像被悄悄移走，不知去向。外國媒體多認為官方想重建中國社會秩序，標誌著中國人對孔子的一次重要反省。中國大陸部分左傾網站網民對此事件持反感態度。

批評

墨子

黑格爾

黑格爾在哲學史講座中認為，孔子的道德哲學缺乏思辨，如《論語》只是一些善良和道德的教條。

以貌取人

孔子曾有一個弟子澹臺滅明，是魯國武城人（武城在今山東費縣西南），曾經不被孔子看好。澹臺是複姓，名滅明，字子羽。《史記·仲尼弟子列傳》說，子羽「少孔子三十九歲。」（一說小四十九歲《孔子家語·七十二弟子解》）

子羽的父親與吳國大夫王犯關係很密切。魯哀公八年（公元前487年），吳國興兵討伐魯國。吳國大軍兵臨城下，魯人擔心子羽之父會與吳人暗中勾結，裡應外合滅掉魯國。

當時，魯國的一位大夫子服景伯說：「吳師來，斯（指子羽父親）與之戰，何患焉？且召之而至，又何求焉？」吳國軍隊來了，就跟他作戰，有什麼好怕的？並且召他就來，又有什麼可要求的呢。在魯國面臨危難的關鍵時刻，子羽之父深明大義，忠於魯國，受到大夫的信賴。

孔子的弟子中，子游是唯一的南方人，他擔任武城宰時，子羽在他手下當差，做過一個小官。子游覺得他為人正派，做事規規矩矩，很守本分，從來不耍弄手段，不做投機取巧的劣事。因此當孔子問他：「你在那裡做官，有沒有發現什麼人才？」子游就向孔子推薦子羽。

子游推薦子羽時，說過一句話「行不由徑」。「徑」指小路，他欣賞子羽行事坦蕩，平時走路也只走大道，從來不抄小路。子羽做人也是如此，坦率正直，從不耍小聰明，貪占他人的便宜。子羽雖在子游手下當差，如果不是因為公務，他絕不會擅自跑到子游房間，也不會仗著上級長官的權勢，去欺壓他人。子羽有他父親的美德，忠於所負之事，「為人公正無私」。

子羽初入孔門，孔子看到他相貌醜陋凶惡，以為他資質平庸，沒有什麼才能，所以很失望。子羽拜其為師，跟隨孔子學習。子羽到南方吳楚等地教授禮樂，當時跟隨他的弟子就高達三百人，受到各諸侯國的尊敬，而他本人行事公正無私，在魯國擔任大夫。

所以，孔子晚年聽說子羽的消息，感嘆道：「以貌取人，失之子羽。」《韓非子．顯學》

紀念

教師節

孔子誕生的日期為9月28日，中華民國政府遷台後，於1952年頒訂至聖先師誕辰與教師節由農曆8月27日改為9月28日，該日又稱「孔子誕辰紀念日」，每年台灣各地孔廟都會舉行釋奠典禮。另外，在馬來西亞華文獨立中學也列為教師節。

祭孔

歷代帝王之祀孔子者，自漢高祖始。《漢書·高帝紀》：「過魯，以太牢祠孔子。」而學校祀孔，自明帝始。《後漢書·禮儀志》：「永平二年，……養三老五更於闢雍；郡、縣、道行鄉飲酒禮於學校，皆祀聖師周公、孔子。」《文獻通考》：「貞觀二年，停祭周公，升孔子為先聖」。蓋自漢以來，雖已舉國崇奉孔子之教，而立廟奉祀，近於宗教性質者，乃由人心漸演漸深，踵事增華之故，初非孔子欲創立一教，亦非僅一二帝王或學者，假孔子之教以愚民也。

後人為了紀念孔子，在世界很多地方都有建有孔廟進行祭孔的活動。從1952年開始，在台灣，孔子的生日被定為教師節。在大陸，改革開放以後隨著中華文化的複興，祭孔活動興起。

孔府、孔廟、孔林

中國山東曲阜的孔廟、孔府、孔林合稱「三孔」是中國曆代紀念孔子，推崇儒學的表徵。孔廟始建于公元前478年，歷經2400多年而從未放棄祭祀，是中國使用時間最長的廟宇，也是中國現存最為著名的古建築群之一；孔林是孔丘死後葬身之墓地，延續使用2400多年，不僅是中國也是世界上延用時間最長的氏族墓地；孔子嫡孫保有世襲罔替的爵號，歷時2100多年，是中國最古老的貴族世家，其府第孔府是中國現存規模最大、保存最好、最為典型的官衙與宅第合一的建築群。「三孔」已被聯合國教科文組織列入《世界遺產名錄》。

歷代追封追謚

孔子去世後，歷代帝王為彰顯對孔子的尊崇，不斷追封追謚。

現代文藝作品

小說

• 1989年《孔子》日本作家井上靖之作。

漫畫

• 《VTuber孔子》由台灣漫畫家Raiyu創作的漫畫。

電影

• 1940年版《孔夫子》由唐槐秋飾演孔子。

• 1985年版《孔子》由曹見得飾演孔子。

• 2010年版《孔子》（又譯：孔子：決戰春秋）由周潤發飾演孔子。

電視劇

• 1990年版《孔子》由王繪春飾演孔子。

• 1996年版《東周列國春秋篇》由王繪春飾演孔子。

• 2010年版《孔子春秋》由朱剛日堯飾演孔子。

• 2011年版《孔子》由趙文瑄飾演孔子。

• 2012年版《智勝鮮師》由曾國城飾演孔子。

話劇

• 2021年《典籍里的中國》由王繪春飾演孔子。

動畫片

• 《孔子傳》（1995年）（台灣公視與日本NHK、韓國KBS三國共同合力製作）

• 《孔子》（2009年）

郵票

• 1989年9月28日中華人民共和國發行了《J162M孔子誕生2540周年（小型張）》，紀念孔子誕辰

注釋

Name

The name "Confucius" is a Latinized form of the Mandarin Chinese (孔夫子, "Master Kong"), and was coined in the late 16th century by early Jesuit missionaries to China. Confucius's family name was Kong and his given name was Qiu. His courtesy name, a capping (guan: 冠) given at his coming of age ceremony, and by which he would have been known to all but his older family members, was Zhongni, the "Zhòng" indicating that he was the second son in his family.

Life

Early life

It is thought that Confucius was born on 28 September 551 BCE, in Zou (鄒, in modern Shandong). The area was notionally controlled by the kings of Zhou but effectively independent under the local lords of Lu, who ruled from the nearby city of Qufu. His father Kong He (or Shuliang He) was an elderly commandant of the local Lu garrison. His ancestry traced back through the dukes of Song to the Shang dynasty which had preceded the Zhou. Traditional accounts of Confucius's life relate that Kong He's grandfather had migrated the family from Song to Lu. Not all modern scholars accept Confucius's descent from Song nobility.

Kong He died when Confucius was three years old, and Confucius was raised by his mother Yan Zhengzai (顏徵在) in poverty. His mother later died at less than 40 years of age. At age 19, he married Lady Qiguan (亓官氏), and a year later the couple had their first child, their son Kong Li (孔鯉). Qiguan and Confucius later had two daughters together, one of whom is thought to have died as a child and one was named Kong Jiao (孔姣).

Confucius was educated at schools for commoners, where he studied and learned the Six Arts.

Confucius was born into the class of shi (士), between the aristocracy and the common people. He is said to have worked in various government jobs during his early 20s, and as a bookkeeper and a caretaker of sheep and horses, using the proceeds to give his mother a proper burial. When his mother died, Confucius (aged 23) is said to have mourned for three years, as was the tradition.

Political career

In Confucius's time, the state of Lu was headed by a ruling ducal house. Under the duke were three aristocratic families, whose heads bore the title of viscount and held hereditary positions in the Lu bureaucracy. The Ji family held the position "Minister over the Masses", who was also the "Prime Minister"; the Meng family held the position "Minister of Works"; and the Shu family held the position "Minister of War". In the winter of , Yang Hu—a retainer of the Ji family—rose up in rebellion and seized power from the Ji family. However, by the summer of , the three hereditary families had succeeded in expelling Yang Hu from Lu. By then, Confucius had built up a considerable reputation through his teachings, while the families came to see the value of proper conduct and righteousness, so they could achieve loyalty to a legitimate government. Thus, that year, Confucius came to be appointed to the minor position of governor of a town. Eventually, he rose to the position of Minister of Crime. The Xunzi says that once assuming the post, Confucius ordered the execution of Shaozheng Mao, another Lu state official and scholar whose lectures attracted the three thousand disciples several times except Yan Hui. Shaozheng Mao was accused of 'five crimes', each worth execution, including 'concealed evilness, stubborn abnormality, eloquent duplicity, erudition in bizarre facts and generosity to evildoers'.

Confucius desired to return the authority of the state to the duke by dismantling the fortifications of the city—strongholds belonging to the three families. This way, he could establish a centralized government. However, Confucius relied solely on diplomacy as he had no military authority himself. In , Hou Fan—the governor of Hou—revolted against his lord of the Shu family. Although the Meng and Shu families unsuccessfully besieged Hou, a loyalist official rose up with the people of Hou and forced Hou Fan to flee to the state of Qi. The situation may have been in favor for Confucius as this likely made it possible for Confucius and his disciples to convince the aristocratic families to dismantle the fortifications of their cities. Eventually, after a year and a half, Confucius and his disciples succeeded in convincing the Shu family to raze the walls of Hou, the Ji family in razing the walls of Bi, and the Meng family in razing the walls of Cheng. First, the Shu family led an army towards their city Hou and tore down its walls in .

Soon thereafter, Gongshan Furao, a retainer of the Ji family, revolted and took control of the forces at Bi. He immediately launched an attack and entered the capital Lu. Earlier, Gongshan had approached Confucius to join him, which Confucius considered as he wanted the opportunity to put his principles into practice but he gave up on the idea in the end. Confucius disapproved the use of a violent revolution by principle, even though the Ji family dominated the Lu state by force for generations and had exiled the previous duke. Creel states that, unlike the rebel Yang Hu before him, Gongshan may have sought to destroy the three hereditary families and restore the power of the duke. However, Dubs is of the view that Gongshan was encouraged by Viscount Ji Huan to invade the Lu capital in an attempt to avoid dismantling the Bi fortified walls. Whatever the situation may have been, Gongshan was considered an upright man who continued to defend the state of Lu, even after he was forced to flee.

During the revolt by Gongshan, Zhong You had managed to keep the duke and the three viscounts together at the court. Zhong You was one of the disciples of Confucius and Confucius had arranged for him to be given the position of governor by the Ji family. When Confucius heard of the raid, he requested that Viscount Ji Huan allow the duke and his court to retreat to a stronghold on his palace grounds. Thereafter, the heads of the three families and the duke retreated to the Ji's palace complex and ascended the Wuzi Terrace. Confucius ordered two officers to lead an assault against the rebels. At least one of the two officers was a retainer of the Ji family, but they were unable to refuse the orders while in the presence of the duke, viscounts, and court. The rebels were pursued and defeated at Gu. Immediately after the revolt was defeated, the Ji family razed the Bi city walls to the ground.

The attackers retreated after realizing that they would have to become rebels against the state and their lord. Through Confucius' actions, the Bi officials had inadvertently revolted against their own lord, thus forcing Viscount Ji Huan's hand in having to dismantle the walls of Bi—as it could have harbored such rebels—or confess to instigating the event by going against proper conduct and righteousness as an official. Dubs suggests that the incident brought to light Confucius' foresight, practical political ability, and insight into human character.

When it was time to dismantle the city walls of the Meng family, the governor was reluctant to have his city walls torn down and convinced the head of the Meng family not to do so. The Zuo Zhuan recalls that the governor advised against razing the walls to the ground as he said that it made Cheng vulnerable to Qi, and cause the destruction of the Meng family. Even though Viscount Meng Yi gave his word not to interfere with an attempt, he went back on his earlier promise to dismantle the walls.

Later in , Duke Ding of Lu personally went with an army to lay siege to Cheng in an attempt to raze its walls to the ground, but he did not succeed. Thus, Confucius could not achieve the idealistic reforms that he wanted including restoration of the legitimate rule of the duke. He had made powerful enemies within the state, especially with Viscount Ji Huan, due to his successes so far. According to accounts in the Zuo Zhuan and the Records of the Grand Historian, Confucius departed his homeland in after his support for the failed attempt of dismantling the fortified city walls of the powerful Ji, Meng, and Shu families. He left the state of Lu without resigning, remaining in self-exile and unable to return as long as Viscount Ji Huan was alive.

Exile

The Shiji stated that the neighboring Qi state was worried that Lu was becoming too powerful while Confucius was involved in the government of the Lu state. According to this account, Qi decided to sabotage Lu's reforms by sending 100 good horses and 80 beautiful dancing girls to the duke of Lu. The duke indulged himself in pleasure and did not attend to official duties for three days. Confucius was disappointed and resolved to leave Lu and seek better opportunities, yet to leave at once would expose the misbehavior of the duke and therefore bring public humiliation to the ruler Confucius was serving. Confucius therefore waited for the duke to make a lesser mistake. Soon after, the duke neglected to send to Confucius a portion of the sacrificial meat that was his due according to custom, and Confucius seized upon this pretext to leave both his post and the Lu state.

After Confucius's resignation, he travelled around the principality states of north-east and central China including Wey, Song, Zheng, Cao, Chu, Qi, Chen, and Cai (and a failed attempt to go to Jin). At the courts of these states, he expounded his political beliefs but did not see them implemented.

Return home

According to the Zuozhuan, Confucius returned home to his native Lu when he was 68, after he was invited to do so by Ji Kangzi, the chief minister of Lu. The Shiji depicts him spending his last years teaching 3000 pupils, with 72 or 77 accomplished disciples that mastered the Six Arts. Meanwhile, Confucius dedicated himself in transmitting the old wisdom by writing or editing the Five Classics.

During his return, Confucius sometimes acted as an advisor to several government officials in Lu, including Ji Kangzi, on matters including governance and crime.

Burdened by the loss of both his son and his favorite disciples, he died at the age of 71 or 72 from natural causes. Confucius was buried on the bank of the Sishui River, to the north of Qufu City in Shandong Province. Starting as a humble tomb, the cemetery of Confucius had been expanded by emperors since the Han Dynasty. To date, the Cemetery of Confucius (孔林) covers an area of 183 hectares with more than 100,000 graves of the Kong descendants, it is included in the World Heritage List for its cultural and architectural value.

Philosophy

In the Analects, Confucius presents himself as a "transmitter who invented nothing". He puts the greatest emphasis on the importance of study, and it is the Chinese character for study (學) that opens the text. Far from trying to build a systematic or formalist theory, he wanted his disciples to master and internalize older classics, so that they can capture the ancient wisdoms that promotes "harmony and order", to aid their self-cultivation to become a perfect man. For example, the Annals would allow them to relate the moral problems of the present to past political events; the Book of Odes reflects the "mood and concerns" of the commoners and their view on government; while the Book of Changes encompasses the key theory and practice of divination.

Although some Chinese people follow Confucianism in a religious manner, many argue that its values are secular and that it is less a religion than a secular morality. Proponents of religious Confucianism argue that despite the secular nature of Confucianism's teachings, it is based on a worldview that is religious. Confucius was considered more of a humanist than a spiritualist, his discussions on afterlife and views concerning Heaven remained indeterminate, and he is largely unconcerned with spiritual matters often considered essential to religious thought, such as the nature of souls.

Ethics

One of the deepest teachings of Confucius may have been the superiority of personal exemplification over explicit rules of behavior. His moral teachings emphasized self-cultivation, emulation of moral exemplars, and the attainment of skilled judgment rather than knowledge of rules. Confucian ethics may, therefore, be considered a type of virtue ethics. His teachings rarely rely on reasoned argument, and ethical ideals and methods are conveyed indirectly, through allusion, innuendo, and even tautology. His teachings require examination and context to be understood. A good example is found in this famous anecdote:

This remark was considered a strong manifestation of Confucius' advocacy in humanism.

One of his teachings was a variant of the Golden Rule, sometimes called the "Silver Rule" owing to its negative form:

Often overlooked in Confucian ethics are the virtues to the self: sincerity and the cultivation of knowledge. Virtuous action towards others begins with virtuous and sincere thought, which begins with knowledge. A virtuous disposition without knowledge is susceptible to corruption, and virtuous action without sincerity is not true righteousness. Cultivating knowledge and sincerity is also important for one's own sake; the superior person loves learning for the sake of learning and righteousness for the sake of righteousness.

The Confucian theory of ethics as exemplified in lǐ (禮) is based on three important conceptual aspects of life: (a) ceremonies associated with sacrifice to ancestors and deities of various types, (b) social and political institutions, and (c) the etiquette of daily behavior. Some believed that lǐ originated from the heavens, but Confucius stressed the development of lǐ through the actions of sage leaders in human history. His discussions of lǐ seem to redefine the term to refer to all actions committed by a person to build the ideal society, rather than those conforming with canonical standards of ceremony.

In the early Confucian tradition, lǐ was doing the proper thing at the proper time; balancing between maintaining existing norms to perpetuate an ethical social fabric, and violating them in order to accomplish ethical good. Training in the lǐ of past sages, cultivates virtues in people that include ethical judgment about when lǐ must be adapted in light of situational contexts.

In Confucianism, the concept of li is closely related to yì (義), which is based upon the idea of reciprocity. Yì can be translated as righteousness, though it may mean what is ethically best to do in a certain context. The term contrasts with action done out of self-interest or profitableness (利). While pursuing one's own self-interest is not necessarily bad, one would be a better, more righteous person if one's life was based upon following a path designed to enhance the greater good. Thus an outcome of yì is doing the right thing for its own sake, without regarding the material gains.

Just as action according to lǐ should be adapted to conform to the aspiration of adhering to yì, so yì is linked to the core value of rén (仁). Rén consists of five basic virtues: seriousness, generosity, sincerity, diligence, and kindness. Rén is the virtue of perfectly fulfilling one's responsibilities toward others, most often translated as "benevolence", "humaneness", or "empathy"; translator Arthur Waley calls it "Goodness" (with a capital G), and other translations that have been put forth include "authoritativeness" and "selflessness". Confucius's moral system was based upon empathy and understanding others, rather than divinely ordained rules. To develop one's spontaneous responses of rén so that these could guide action intuitively was even better than living by the rules of yì. Confucius asserts that virtue is a mean between extremes. For example, the properly generous person gives the right amount – not too much and not too little.

Politics

Confucius's political thought is based upon his ethical thought. He argued that the best government is one that rules through "rites" (lǐ) and morality, and not by using incentives and coercion. He explained that this is one of the most important analects: "If the people be led by laws, and uniformity sought to be given them by punishments, they will try to avoid the punishment, but have no sense of shame. If they be led by virtue, and uniformity sought to be given them by the rules of propriety, they will have the sense of the shame, and moreover will become good." (Analects 2.3, tr. Legge). This "sense of shame" is an internalization of duty. Confucianism prioritizes creating a harmonious society over the ruler's interests, opposes material incentives and harsh punishments, and downplays the role of institutions in guiding behavior as in Legalism, emphasizing moral virtues instead.

Confucius looked nostalgically upon earlier days, and urged the Chinese, particularly those with political power, to model themselves on earlier examples. In times of division, chaos, and endless wars between feudal states, he wanted to restore the Mandate of Heaven (天命) that could unify the "world" (天下, "all under Heaven") and bestow peace and prosperity on the people. Because his vision of personal and social perfections was framed as a revival of the ordered society of earlier times, Confucius is often considered a great proponent of conservatism, but a closer look at what he proposes often shows that he used (and perhaps twisted) past institutions and rites to push a new political agenda of his own: a revival of a unified royal state, whose rulers would succeed to power on the basis of their moral merits instead of lineage. These would be rulers devoted to their people, striving for personal and social perfection, and such a ruler would spread his own virtues to the people instead of imposing proper behavior with laws and rules.

While Confucius supported the idea of government ruling by a virtuous king, his ideas contained a number of elements to limit the power of rulers. He argued for representing truth in language, and honesty was of paramount importance. Even in facial expression, truth must always be represented. Confucius believed that if a ruler is to lead correctly, by action, that orders would be unnecessary in that others will follow the proper actions of their ruler. In discussing the relationship between a king and his subject (or a father and his son), he underlined the need to give due respect to superiors. This demanded that the subordinates must advise their superiors if the superiors are considered to be taking a course of action that is wrong. Confucius believed in ruling by example, if you lead correctly, orders by force or punishment are not necessary.

Music and poetry

Music was one of the six arts that students needed to master, together with archery, charioteering, mathematics, calligraphy, and a partner to music, the purpose of rituals. Confucius heavily promoted the use of music with rituals or the rites order. Unlike other philosophers around the world, Confucius viewed music and music theory beyond a mere art form or curriculum subject, and stated that it was intrinsically intertwined with rites in structuring man. "Music is that which moves man from the internal; rites are that which affects man

on the external. Music brings about harmony. Rites ensure obedience." To Confucius, music created the focus necessary to unite and harmonize man. Thus, music and rites together were more than beneficial but were to make people act in a manner compatible with heaven and earth. The scholar Li Zehou argued that Confucianism is based on the idea of rites. Rites serve as the starting point for each individual and that these sacred social functions allow each person's human nature to be harmonious with reality. Given this, Confucius believed that "music is the harmonization of heaven and earth; the rites is the order of heaven and earth." Therefore, the application of music in rites creates the order that makes it possible for society to prosper.

The Confucian approach to music was heavily inspired by the and the , which was said to be the sixth Confucian classic until it was lost during the Han dynasty. The serves as one of the current Confucian classics and is a book on poetry that contains a diversified variety of poems as well as poems meant for folk songs. Confucius is traditionally ascribed with compiling these classics within his school. In the Analects, Confucius described the importance of poetry in the intellectual and moral development of an individual:

Confucians in later generations had conservative and mixed views on international musical influences encroaching on China, in particular those with varying styles that did not traditionally accompany rites, and some preached against sentimental tendencies from the Persians, the Greco-Bactrians, and the Mongols.

Legacy

Confucius's teachings were later turned into an elaborate set of rules and practices by his numerous disciples and followers, who organized his teachings into the Analects. Confucius's disciples and his only grandson, Zisi, continued his philosophical school after his death. These efforts spread Confucian ideals to students who then became officials in many of the royal courts in China, thereby giving Confucianism the first wide-scale test of its dogma.

Two of Confucius's most famous later followers emphasized radically different aspects of his teachings. In the centuries after his death, Mencius (孟子) and Xunzi (荀子) both composed important teachings elaborating in different ways on the fundamental ideas associated with Confucius. Mencius articulated the innate goodness in human beings as a source of the ethical intuitions that guide people towards rén, yì, and lǐ, while Xunzi underscored the realistic and materialistic aspects of Confucian thought, stressing that morality was inculcated in society through tradition and in individuals through training. In time, their writings, together with the Analects and other core texts came to constitute the philosophical corpus of Confucianism.

This realignment in Confucian thought was parallel to the development of Legalism, which held that humanity and righteousness were not sufficient in government, and that rulers should instead rely on statecrafts, punishments, and law. A disagreement between these two political philosophies came to a head in when the Qin state conquered all of China. Li Si, Prime Minister of the Qin dynasty, convinced Qin Shi Huang to abandon the Confucians' recommendation of awarding fiefs akin to the Zhou dynasty before them which he saw as being against to the Legalist idea of centralizing the state around the ruler.

Under the succeeding Han and Tang dynasties, Confucian ideas gained even more widespread prominence. Under Emperor Wu of Han, the works attributed to Confucius were made the official imperial philosophy and required reading for civil service examinations in which was continued nearly unbroken until the end of the 19th century. As Mohism lost support by the time of the Han, the main philosophical contenders were Legalism, which Confucian thought somewhat absorbed, the teachings of Laozi, whose focus on more spiritual ideas kept it from direct conflict with Confucianism, and the new Buddhist religion, which gained acceptance during the Southern and Northern Dynasties era. Both Confucian ideas and Confucian-trained officials were relied upon in the Ming dynasty and even the Yuan dynasty, although Kublai Khan distrusted handing over provincial control to them.

During the Song dynasty, Confucianism was revitalized in a movement known as Neo-Confucianism. Neo-Confucianism was a revival of Confucianism that expanded on classical theories by incorporating metaphysics and new approaches to self-cultivation and enlightenment, influenced by Buddhism and Daoism. The most renowned scholar of this period was Zhu Xi. There are clear Buddhist and Daoist influences in the Neo-Confucian advocacy of "quiet sitting" (meditation) as a technique of self-cultivation that leads to transformative experiences of insight." In his life, Zhu Xi was largely ignored, but not long after his death, his ideas became the new orthodox view of what Confucian texts actually meant. Modern historians view Zhu Xi as having created something rather different and call his way of thinking Neo-Confucianism. Neo-Confucianism held sway in China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam until the 19th century.

The works of Confucius were first translated into European languages by Jesuit missionaries in the 16th century during the late Ming dynasty. The first known effort was by Michele Ruggieri, who returned to Italy in 1588 and carried on his translations while residing in Salerno. Matteo Ricci started to report on the thoughts of Confucius, and a team of Jesuits—Prospero Intorcetta, Philippe Couplet, and two others—published a translation of several Confucian works and an overview of Chinese history in Paris in 1687. François Noël, after failing to persuade ClementXI that Chinese veneration of ancestors and Confucius did not constitute idolatry, completed the Confucian canon at Prague in 1711, with more scholarly treatments of the other works and the first translation of the collected works of Mencius. It is thought that such works had considerable importance on European thinkers of the period, particularly among the Deists and other philosophical groups of the Enlightenment who were interested by the integration of the system of morality of Confucius into Western civilization.

In the modern era Confucian movements, such as New Confucianism, still exist, but during the Cultural Revolution, Confucianism was frequently attacked by leading figures in the Chinese Communist Party. This was partially a continuation of the condemnations of Confucianism by intellectuals and activists in the early 20th century as a cause of the ethnocentric close-mindedness and refusal of the Qing dynasty to modernize that led to the tragedies that befell China in the 19th century.

Confucius's works are studied by scholars in many other Asian countries, particularly those in the Chinese cultural sphere, such as Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. Many of those countries still hold the traditional memorial ceremony every year.

Among Tibetans, Confucius is often worshipped as a holy king and master of magic, divination and astrology. Tibetan Buddhists see him as learning divination from the Buddha Manjushri (and that knowledge subsequently reaching Tibet through Princess Wencheng), while Bon practitioners see him as being a reincarnation of Tonpa Shenrab Miwoche, the legendary founder of Bon.

The Ahmadiyya believes Confucius was a Divine Prophet of God, as were Lao-Tzu and other eminent Chinese personages.

According to the Siddhar tradition of Tamil Nadu, Confucius is one of the 18 esteemed Siddhars of yore, and is better known as Kalangi Nathar or Kamalamuni. The Thyagaraja Temple in Thiruvarur, Tamil Nadu is home to his Jeeva Samadhi.

In modern times, Asteroid 7853, "Confucius", was named after the Chinese thinker.

Teaching and Disciples

Confucius was regarded as the first teacher who advocated for public welfare and the spread of education in China. Confucius devoted his entire life, from a relatively young age, to teaching. He pioneered private education adopting a curriculum known as the Six Arts, aimed at making education accessible to all social classes, and believed in its power to cultivate character rather than merely vocational skills. Confucius not only made teaching his profession but also contributed to the development of a distinct class of professionals in ancient China—the gentlemen who were neither farmers, artisans, merchants, nor officials but instead dedicated themselves to teaching and potential government service.

Confucius began teaching after he turned 30, and taught more than 3,000 students in his life, about 70 of whom were considered outstanding. His disciples and the early Confucian community they formed became the most influential intellectual force in the Warring States period. The Han dynasty historian Sima Qian dedicated a chapter in his Records of the Grand Historian to the biographies of Confucius's disciples, accounting for the influence they exerted in their time and afterward. Sima Qian recorded the names of 77 disciples in his collective biography, while Kongzi Jiayu, another early source, records 76, not completely overlapping. The two sources together yield the names of 96 disciples. Twenty-two of them are mentioned in the Analects, while the Mencius records 24.

Confucius did not charge any tuition, and only requested a symbolic gift of a bundle of dried meat from any prospective student. According to his disciple Zigong, his master treated students like doctors treated patients and did not turn anybody away. Most of them came from Lu, Confucius's home state, with 43 recorded, but he accepted students from all over China, with six from the state of Wey (such as Zigong), three from Qin, two each from Chen and Qi, and one each from Cai, Chu, and Song. Confucius considered his students' personal background irrelevant, and accepted noblemen, commoners, and even former criminals such as Yan Zhuoju and Gongye Chang. His disciples from richer families would pay a sum commensurate with their wealth which was considered a ritual donation.

Confucius's favorite disciple was Yan Hui, most probably one of the most impoverished of them all. Sima Niu, in contrast to Yan Hui, was from a hereditary noble family hailing from the Song state. Under Confucius's teachings, the disciples became well learned in the principles and methods of government. He often engaged in discussion and debate with his students and gave high importance to their studies in history, poetry, and ritual. Confucius advocated loyalty to principle rather than to individual acumen, in which reform was to be achieved by persuasion rather than violence. Even though Confucius denounced them for their practices, the aristocracy was likely attracted to the idea of having trustworthy officials who were studied in morals as the circumstances of the time made it desirable. In fact, the disciple Zilu even died defending his ruler in Wey.

Yang Hu, who was a subordinate of the Ji family, had dominated the Lu government from 505 to 502 and even attempted a coup, which narrowly failed. As a likely consequence, it was after this that the first disciples of Confucius were appointed to government positions. A few of Confucius's disciples went on to attain official positions of some importance, some of which were arranged by Confucius. By the time Confucius was 50 years old, the Ji family had consolidated their power in the Lu state over the ruling ducal house. Even though the Ji family had practices with which Confucius disagreed and disapproved, they nonetheless gave Confucius's disciples many opportunities for employment. Confucius continued to remind his disciples to stay true to their principles and renounced those who did not, all the while being openly critical of the Ji family.

In the West

The influence of Confucius has been observed on multiple Western thinkers, including Niels Bohr, Benjamin Franklin, Allen Ginsberg, Thomas Jefferson, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, Robert Cummings Neville, Alexander Pope, Ezra Pound, François Quesnay, Friedrich Schiller, Voltaire, and Christian Wolff.

Visual portraits

No contemporary painting or sculpture of Confucius survives, and it was only during the Han dynasty that he was portrayed visually. Carvings often depict his legendary meeting with Laozi. Since that time there have been many portraits of Confucius as the ideal philosopher. An early verbal portrayal of Confucius is found in the chapter "External Things" (外物 Wàiwù) of the book Zhuangzi (莊子 Zhuāngzǐ), finished in about 3rd BCE, long after Confucius's death. The oldest known portrait of Confucius has been unearthed in the tomb of the Han dynasty ruler Marquis of Haihun (died ). The picture was painted on the wooden frame to a polished bronze mirror.

In former times, it was customary to have a portrait in Confucius Temples; however, during the reign of Hongwu Emperor (Taizu) of the Ming dynasty, it was decided that the only proper portrait of Confucius should be in the temple in his home town, Qufu in Shandong. In other temples, Confucius is represented by a memorial tablet. In 2006, the China Confucius Foundation commissioned a standard portrait of Confucius based on the Tang dynasty portrait by Wu Daozi.

The South Wall Frieze in the courtroom of the Supreme Court of the United States depicts Confucius as a teacher of harmony, learning, and virtue.

Fictional portrayals

There have been two film adaptations of Confucius' life: the 1940 film Confucius starring Tang Huaiqiu, and the 2010 film Confucius starring Chow Yun-fat.

Confucius appears as a leader in Civilization VII, leading China.

Memorials

Soon after Confucius's death, Qufu, his home town, became a place of devotion and remembrance. The Han dynasty Records of the Grand Historian records that it had already become a place of pilgrimage for ministers. It is still a major destination for cultural tourism, and many people visit his grave and the surrounding temples. There are also numerous temples dedicated to Confucius and distinguished Confucian scholars. These temples have been used for ceremonies paying tribute to Confucius as a revered Master, honoring his guiding principles that have shaped Chinese society.

Followers of Confucianism have a tradition of holding spectacular memorial ceremonies of Confucius (祭孔) every year, using ceremonies that supposedly derived from Zhou Li (周禮) as recorded by Confucius, on the date of Confucius's birth. In the 20th century, this tradition was interrupted for several decades in mainland China, where the official stance of the Communist Party and the State was that Confucius and Confucianism represented reactionary feudalist beliefs which held that the subservience of the people to the aristocracy is a part of the natural order. All such ceremonies and rites were therefore banned. Only after the 1990s did the ceremony resume. As it is now considered a veneration of Chinese history and tradition, even Communist Party members may be found in attendance.

In Taiwan, where the Nationalist Party (Kuomintang) strongly promoted Confucian beliefs in ethics and behavior, the tradition of the memorial ceremony of Confucius (祭孔) is supported by the government and has continued without interruption. While not a national holiday, it does appear on all printed calendars, much as Father's Day or Christmas Day do in the Western world.

In South Korea, a grand-scale memorial ceremony called Seokjeon Daeje is held twice a year on Confucius's birthday and the anniversary of his death, at Confucian academies across the country and Sungkyunkwan in Seoul.

Descendants

Confucius's descendants were repeatedly identified and honored by successive imperial governments with titles of nobility and official posts. They were honored with the rank of a marquis 35 times since Gaozu of the Han dynasty, and they were promoted to the rank of duke 42 times from the Tang dynasty to the Qing dynasty. Emperor Xuanzong of Tang first bestowed the title of "Duke Wenxuan" on Kong Suizhi of the 35th generation. In 1055, Emperor Renzong of Song first bestowed the title of "Duke Yansheng" on Kong Zongyuan of the 46th generation.

During the Southern Song dynasty, the Duke Yansheng Kong Duanyou fled south with the Song Emperor to Quzhou in Zhejiang, while the newly established Jin dynasty (1115–1234) in the north appointed Kong Duanyou's brother Kong Duancao who remained in Qufu as Duke Yansheng. From that time up until the Yuan dynasty, there were two Duke Yanshengs, one in the north in Qufu and the other in the south at Quzhou. An invitation to come back to Qufu was extended to the southern Duke Yansheng Kong Zhu by the Yuan-dynasty Emperor Kublai Khan. The title was taken away from the southern branch after Kong Zhu rejected the invitation, so the northern branch of the family kept the title of Duke Yansheng. The southern branch remained in Quzhou where they live to this day. Confucius's descendants in Quzhou alone number 30,000. The Hanlin Academy rank of Wujing boshi 五經博士 was awarded to the southern branch at Quzhou by a Ming Emperor while the northern branch at Qufu held the title Duke Yansheng. The leader of the southern branch was 孔祥楷 Kong Xiangkai.

In 1351, during the reign of Emperor Toghon Temür of the Yuan dynasty, 54th-generation Kong Shao (孔昭) moved from China to Korea during the Goryeo dynasty, and was received courteously by Princess Noguk (the Mongolian-born queen consort of the future king Gongmin). After being naturalized as a subject of Goryeo, he changed the hanja of his name from "昭" to "紹" (both pronounced so in Korean), married a Korean woman and bore a son (Gong Yeo, 1329–1397), therefore establishing the Changwon Gong clan, whose ancestral seat was located in Changwon, South Gyeongsang Province. In 1794, during the reign of King Jeongjo, the clan then changed its name to Gokbu Gong clan in honor of Confucius's birthplace Qufu.

Famous descendants include actors such as Gong Yoo (real name Gong Ji-cheol (공지철)) and Gong Hyo-jin (공효진); and artists such as male idol group B1A4 member Gongchan (real name Gong Chan-sik (공찬식)), singer-songwriter Minzy (real name Gong Min-ji (공민지)), as well as her great aunt, traditional folk dancer (공옥진).

Despite repeated dynastic change in China, the title of Duke Yansheng was bestowed upon successive generations of descendants until it was abolished by the Nationalist government in 1935. The last holder of the title, Kung Te-cheng of the 77th generation, was appointed Sacrificial Official to Confucius. Kung Te-cheng died in October 2008, and his son, Kung Wei-yi, the 78th lineal descendant, died in 1989. Kung Te-cheng's grandson, Kung Tsui-chang, the 79th lineal descendant, was born in 1975; his great-grandson, Kung Yu-jen, the 80th lineal descendant, was born in Taipei on 1 January 2006. Te-cheng's sister, Kong Demao, lives in mainland China and has written a book about her experiences growing up at the family estate in Qufu. Another sister, Kong Deqi, died as a young woman. Many descendants of Confucius still live in Qufu today.

A descendant of Confucius, H. H. Kung, was the Premier of the Republic of China. One of his sons, (孔令傑), married Debra Paget who gave birth to Gregory Kung (孔德基).

Confucius's family, the Kongs, have the longest recorded extant pedigree in the world today. The father-to-son family tree, now in its 83rd generation, has been recorded since the death of Confucius. According to the Confucius Genealogy Compilation Committee (CGCC), he has two million known and registered descendants, and there are an estimated three million in all. Of these, several tens of thousands live outside of China. In the 14th century, a Kong descendant went to Korea, where an estimated 34,000 descendants of Confucius live today. One of the main lineages fled from the Kong ancestral home in Qufu during the Chinese Civil War in the 1940s and eventually settled in Taiwan. There are also branches of the Kong family who have converted to Islam after marrying Muslim women, in Dachuan in Gansu province in the 1800s, and in 1715 in Xuanwei in Yunnan province. Many of the Muslim Confucius descendants are descended from the marriage of Ma Jiaga, a Muslim woman, and Kong Yanrong, 59th generation descendant of Confucius in the year 1480, and are found among the Hui and Dongxiang peoples. The new genealogy includes the Muslims. Kong Dejun is a prominent Islamic scholar and Arabist from Qinghai province and a 77th generation descendant of Confucius.

Because of the huge interest in the Confucius family tree, there was a project in China to test the DNA of known family members of the collateral branches in mainland China. Among other things, this would allow scientists to identify a common Y chromosome in male descendants of Confucius. If the descent were truly unbroken, father-to-son, since Confucius's lifetime, the males in the family would all have the same Y chromosome as their direct male ancestor, with slight mutations due to the passage of time. The aim of the genetic test was to help members of collateral branches in China who lost their genealogical records to prove their descent. However, in 2009, many of the collateral branches decided not to agree to DNA testing. Bryan Sykes, professor of genetics at Oxford University, understands this decision: "The Confucius family tree has an enormous cultural significance ... It's not just a scientific question." The DNA testing was originally proposed to add new members, many of whose family record books were lost during 20th century upheavals, to the Confucian family tree. The main branch of the family which fled to Taiwan was never involved in the proposed DNA test at all.

In 2013, a DNA test performed on multiple different families who claimed descent from Confucius found that they shared the same Y chromosome as reported by Fudan University.

The fifth and most recent edition of the Confucius genealogy was printed by the CGCC. It was unveiled in a ceremony at Qufu on 24 September 2009. Women are now included for the first time.